GROUP BEHAVIOUR

“Groups are two or more individuals who are

interacting and interdependent ,who have come
together to achieve particular objectives”
•
Stephen R.Robbins
Characteristics of a Group/ Criteria for a group
Group has four features
– Interaction among members
– Shared goals
– People see themselves as group (Association)
– Two or more people needed
Stages of Group Development
 Five stage model of group formation
Stage V
Adjourning
Stage IV
Performing
Stage III Group
Norming may
Stage II
Group disband
Storming
Members members either
Stage I Members Work work after
Forming come to
Together towards meeting
Resist
Members developing Getting their goals
Control by
get to know group Close their jobs or because
each other & Leaders & Relationships done members
set ground Show & feelings of Leave
rules hostility Cohesiveness
 The Five-Stage Model of Group Development
1. Forming Stage
• characterized by much uncertainty.
• Safe, patterned behaviour
• Orientation to task & others

2. Storming Stage
• characterized by intra-group conflict.
• Competition & conflict
• Delegation of tasks

3. Norming Stage
•characterized by close relationships
and cohesiveness.
•Acknowledge contributions
•Free flow of ideas
•Sense of group belonging
 …Group Development (cont’d)
4. Performing Stage
•group is fully functional.
•Not reached by all groups
•Equal facilitation
•Highly task oriented & highly people oriented

5. Adjourning Stage
•characterized by concern with
wrapping up
•Termination
•Disengagement
•Say goodbyes
 Factors Influencing Group Formation
1. Safety & Security -To feel stronger
2. Status - Provides recognition for the members.
3. Self-esteem-Feeling of self-worth.
4. Affiliation -To fulfill social needs. People enjoy regular
interaction.
5. Power - There is power in numbers.
6. Goal Achievement- Sometimes you need more people
to accomplish a particular task.
7. Reward
8. Interaction
TYPES OF GROUPS/ CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS

Types of Groups

Informal Groups Other Groups

Formal Groups
Interest group Small/Large Groups
Command groups
Friendship group Membership /Reference
Task groups
Membership group Primary /Secondary Group
Functional groups
Reference group Temporary /Permanent
 Formal Group
• A designated work group defined by the organization’s structure.
• They have to follow rules, regulations and
policy of the organization.
• A formal organizational group includes
departments such as the
– personnel department,
– the advertising department,
– the quality control department and
– the public relations department etc.
1. Command Group
• A group composed of the individuals who report directly to
a given manager.
• Ex: Production Mgr and his Subordinates

2. Task Group
– Those working together to complete a job or task in an
organization but not limited by hierarchical boundaries

3.Functional group:
• Departments
 INFORMAL GROUP
Interest Group:
• Interest Groups are composed of individuals who may not be
members of the same organisation but they are united by their
interest.
• Ex: Group of Professors who organise seminar on Law and Order
Friendship Group
• Those brought together because they share one or more common
characteristics.
Membership Group
• Membership groups are ones to which the individual actually
belongs
Reference Group
• Is the one which an individually identifies or to which he likes to
belong, it can be an imaginary group
 Other Classification of Group

Small Group Large Group

One a few members Members is very high
Face to Face Communication is Personal Interaction is not
possible Possible

Membership Group Reference Group

Membership groups are ones to Is the one which an individually
which the individual actually identifies or to which he likes to
belongs belong, it can be an imaginary
group
Primary Groups Secondary Groups
It is made of members who They share values and beliefs but
have similar and loyalties and they do not interact often each
has a feeling of friendship other
towards each other
Ex: Peer Group and Family
Ex: Occupational Association

Temporary Groups Permanent Groups

Groups are formed for They have group activities, group
achieving certain objective performance and job assignments
Ex: Committees and Meetings Ex: Trade Union and Business
Association
 Difference between Formal Group and Informal Group
Basis of Difference Formal Group Informal Group

Formation Well Planned Unplanned

Objective To achieve predetermined It has no predetermined

objective objective

Structure It has an official hierarchy Its structure is based on human

emotions and sentiments

Authority Institutional Informal Influence

Leadership The managers who have Informal leadership is not

authority provide leadership appointed but chosen by the
group

Human Relations Do not take care of human Reflects human aspect

sentiments

Flexibility Rigid Structure Loosely Structured

Stability Usually Stable May dissolve due to internal or

external changes
 Group Dynamics

• Group dynamics: Social interaction among the individuals in

the group, “Dynamics” – forces that facilitate changes in a
groups

Concept of group dynamics:

3 views:
1 – Group should be : Organized and conducted, Democratic
leadership and membership participation stressed.
2 – Group dynamics: Consist of set of techniques, role
playing, brainstorming, leadership groups, Sensitivity training
3 – How to form the structure and process of group.
Group Properties/Dynamics

Roles Norms
Group
Perform
ance
Cohesi
veness Status

Size
 Group Property 1: Roles
• Role
– A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a
given position in a social unit
• Role Identity
– Certain attitudes and behaviors consistent with a role
• Role Perception
– An individual’s view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given
situation – received by external stimuli
• Role Expectations
– How others believe a person should act in a given situation
– Psychological Contract: an unwritten agreement that sets out mutual
expectations of management and employees
• Role Conflict
– A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role
expectations
 Group Property 2: Norms
• Norms
– Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by
the group’s members
• Types
Behavior norms:
-rules that standardize how individuals act while working on a day-to-day
basis.
Performance norms:
-standardize employee output and number of hours worked. It is the level
of acceptable work.
Appearance norms - what to wear
 How groups influence their
members
• We have seen how the presence of other people can
make us less inclined to help someone, and how
other people can persuade us to obey their orders.

• Groups can also exert enormous influence on

individuals through the medium of norms (Turner,
1991).
 Group Property 3: Status
A socially defined position or rank given to groups
or group members by others – it differentiates
group members
– Important factor in understanding behavior
– Significant motivator

• Status Characteristics Theory

– Status derived from one of three sources:
• Power a person has over others
• Ability to contribute to group goals
• Personal characteristics
 Group Property 4: Size
• Group size affects behavior
• Size:
– Twelve or more members is a “large” group
– Seven or fewer is a “small” group
Group Property 5: Cohesiveness
Degree to which group members are attracted to
each other and are motivated to stay in the group

•Managerial Implication
– To increase cohesiveness:
• Make the group smaller.
• Encourage agreement with group goals.
• Increase time members spend together.
• Increase group status and admission difficulty.
• Stimulate competition with other groups.
• Give rewards to the group, not individuals.
• Physically isolate the group.
 Group Cohesiveness
• Group Cohesiveness
– The degree to which members are attracted to
their group
• Three major consequences
– Level of participation
– Level of conformity to group norms
– Emphasis on group goal accomplishment
Sources and Consequences of
Group Cohesiveness
Factors Leading to Group Cohesiveness

Factor
Group Size Smaller groups allow for high cohesiveness;
Low cohesiveness groups with many
members can benefit from splitting into two
groups.

Effectively Managed Diverse groups often come up more

Diversity innovative and creative ideas

Group Identity and Encouraging a group to adopt a unique

Healthy Competition identity and engage in competition with
others can increase cohesiveness.

Success Cohesiveness increases with success;

finding ways for a group to have some small
successes increases cohesiveness.
 GROUP DECISION MAKING/
PROBLEM SOLVING TECHNIQUES
Consensus:
Presenting opinions and gaining agreement to
support a decision
– members meet face to face
– both verbal/nonverbal interaction
– censor themselves
– Pressure members toward conformity of opinion.
Brainstorming: (Process to generate a quantity of ideas)
– Group members actively generate as many ideas and
alternatives as possible,
– they do so relatively quickly and without inhibitions.
– a half dozen to a dozen people sit around a table.
– One idea stimulates others, and group members are
encouraged to “think the unusual.”

The process:
a. The group leader states the problem clearly.
b. Members then “free-wheel” as many alternatives as they can in a
given length of time.
c. No criticism is allowed, and all the alternatives are recorded for
later discussion and analysis.
The nominal group technique:(Process to generate ideas & evaluate solutions)
– A form of structured group decision making that enables everyone to
participate and have his/her ideas without criticism or distortions.
– A structured voting procedure is used to prioritize responses to the
nominal question.
– Group members are all physically present, but members operate
independently.
– The advantage of the nominal group technique is that it permits the group
to meet
– steps take place:
• a. Members before discussion independently writes down his or her ideas on the
problem.
• b. Each member presents one idea to the group. Each member takes his or her turn.
• c. The group now discusses the ideas for clarity and evaluates them.
• d. Each group member silently and independently rank-orders the ideas.
• e. The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final decision.
Delphi Technique
• For groups who do not meet face to face.
• Leader distributes topic or task.
• Each member responds.
• A leader collects responses and sends back to team and solicits
feedback.
• Process is repeated until there is resolution on the issue in
question.
• Moderator plays a major role.
The computer-assisted group
• The computer-assisted group or electronic meeting blends the
nominal group technique with sophisticated computer
technology.
• Up to 50 people sit around a horseshoe-shaped table, empty
except for a series of computer terminals.
• Issues are presented to participants, and they type their
responses onto their computer screen.
• Individual comments, as well as aggregate votes, are displayed
on a projection screen.
• The major advantages of electronic meetings are anonymity,
honesty, and speed.
WORK TEAMS
 TEAM
A team is a small group of
people with complementary
skills, who work actively
together to achieve a common
purpose for which they hold
themselves collectively
accountable s

10-32
 Understanding Work Teams
• Teams today are very popular. Why?
• Teams are more flexible and responsive to
changing events than traditional departments.
• They are an effective means for management
to democratize organisations….
• …thereby increasing employee motivation.
 Understanding Work Teams –
Differences between Groups and Teams.
• Are Groups and Teams the same thing?
• No…Why?
WORK GROUPS WORK TEAMS
A group that interacts primarily to A group whose individual efforts
share information and to make result in performance that is greater
decisions to help each group member than the sum of the individual inputs.
perform within his or her area of
responsibility.

Their performance is merely the A work team generates positive

summation of each group member’s Synergy(Combined Power) through
individual contribution. There is no coordinated effort.
Synergy.
Understanding Work Teams
 Understanding Work Teams –
Types of teams
• Types of teams :
1. Problem solving teams.
2. Self managed work teams.
3. Cross functional teams.
4. Virtual teams.
 Understanding Work Teams –
Problem solving teams
1. Problem solving teams : Groups of 5 to 12 employees
from the same department who meet for a few hours
each week to discuss ways of improving quality,
efficiency, and the work environment.
• Members share ideas on work processes and methods.
But rarely have the authority to implement any
suggestions.
 Understanding Work Teams –
Self managed work teams
2. Self managed work teams : Groups of 10 to 15 people who
take on responsibilities of their former supervisors like
planning and scheduling work, assigning tasks to members,
operating decisions, working with suppliers and customers.
• They might even select and evaluate their own members.
• Not only solve problems, but implement solutions and take
responsibility for outcomes.
• Research not uniformly positive.
• Do not manage conflicts well.
• When disputes arise, members stop cooperating, group
performance decreases.
 Understanding Work Teams –
Cross functional teams.
3. Cross functional teams : Employees from about the same
hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come
together to accomplish a task.
• Boeing formed a team from production, planning, quality
control, tooling, design engineering and information
systems for its C 17 program. The team’s suggestions
drastically reduced cycle time and costs as well as improved
quality.
• All the major automobile manufacturers – Toyota, Honda,
Renault, Suzuki, Tata, Ford currently use this form of team.
• The early stages of development are long, as members
learn to deal with diversity and complexity. It takes time to
build trust and teamwork.
 Understanding Work Teams –
Types of teams
• Types of teams :
1. Problem solving teams.
2. Self managed work teams.
3. Cross functional teams.
4. Virtual teams.
 Understanding Work Teams –
Problem solving teams
1. Problem solving teams : Groups of 5 to 12 employees
from the same department who meet for a few hours
each week to discuss ways of improving quality,
efficiency, and the work environment.
• Members share ideas on work processes and methods.
But rarely have the authority to implement any
suggestions.
 Understanding Work Teams –
Self managed work teams
2. Self managed work teams : Groups of 10 to 15 people who
take on responsibilities of their former supervisors like
planning and scheduling work, assigning tasks to members,
operating decisions, working with suppliers and customers.
• They might even select and evaluate their own members.
• Not only solve problems, but implement solutions and take
responsibility for outcomes.
• Research not uniformly positive.
• Do not manage conflicts well.
• When disputes arise, members stop cooperating, group
performance decreases.
 Understanding Work Teams –
Cross functional teams.
3. Cross functional teams : Employees from about the same
hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come
together to accomplish a task.
• Boeing formed a team from production, planning, quality
control, tooling, design engineering and information
systems for its C 17 program. The team’s suggestions
drastically reduced cycle time and costs as well as improved
quality.
• All the major automobile manufacturers – Toyota, Honda,
Renault, Suzuki, Tata, Ford currently use this form of team.
• The early stages of development are long, as members
learn to deal with diversity and complexity. It takes time to
build trust and teamwork.
 Understanding Work Teams
4. Virtual teams : Teams that use computer technology
to tie together physically dispersed members in order
to achieve a common goal.
• Wide area networks, video conferencing, email.
• Less social support, less direct interaction among
members, less satisfaction.
• For effectiveness, managers should ensure:
• 1. Trust is established among members.
• 2. Team progress is monitored closely.
• 3. The efforts of the team are publicised throughout
the organisation.
 Understanding Work Teams
• Creating Effective teams :
The team effectiveness model :
The model attempts to generalise across all
varieties of teams, hence cannot be rigidly
applied to all teams.
The model assumes teamwork is preferable to
individual work.
Groups’ and Teams’ Contributions to
Organizational Effectiveness
 Understanding Work Teams
• The use of teams creates the potential for an
organisation to generate greater outputs with
no increase in inputs.
• Merely calling a group a team will not help.
Effective teams have certain common
characteristics, as we shall see…
 CONTEXT :
1. ADEQUATE RESOURCES
2. LEADERSHIP AND STRUCTURE
3. CLIMATE OF TRUST
4.PERFORMANCE EVALUATION AND REWARD
SYSTEMS

COMPOSITION :
1. ABILITIES OF MEMBERS
2. PERSONALITY
3. ALLOCATING ROLES
4. DIVERSITY
5. SIZE OF TEAMS
6. MEMBER FLEXIBILITY
7. MEMBER PREFERENCES

TEAM EFFECTIVENESS

PROCESS
1. COMMON PURPOSE
2. SPECIFIC GOALS
3. TEAM EFFICACY
4. CONFLICT LEVELS
5. SOCIAL LOAFING
 Understanding Work Teams
1. CONTEXT :
1.1 Adequate resources :
• Timely information
• Proper equipment
• Adequate staffing
• Encouragement
• Administrative assistance
 Understanding Work Teams
• 1.2. Leadership and Structure :
• Agreeing on the specifics of work and
how they fit together to integrate
individual skills requires leadership and
structure, either from management or
from the team members themselves.
• Especially important in multi-team
systems.
 Understanding Work Teams
1.3 Climate of trust :
• In each other.
• In their leader.
• Reduces the need to monitor each
others’ behaviour.
• More likely to take risks and
expose weaknesses.
• Trust is the foundation of
leadership.
 Understanding Work Teams
1.4 Performance evaluation and reward systems :
• In addition to rewarding the individual,
management should have team based
evaluation and rewards like
1. Group based appraisals.
2. Profit sharing.
3. Gainsharing.
4. Small-group incentives.
 Understanding Work Teams –
Team composition – Abilities of
members
2. TEAM COMPOSITION :
2.1 Abilities of members :
These abilities set limits on what members can do and how
effectively they will perform on a team.

3. skills required in a team :

1. Technical expertise.
2. Problem solving and decision making skills to identify
problems, generate and evaluate alternatives and make
competent choices.
3. Interpersonal skills.
The team members can learn these skills if they do not
possess them.
 Understanding Work Teams – Team
composition – Personality of members
2.2 Personality of members :
3 dimensions relevant to team effectiveness :
1. Conscientiousness – Good at backing up other
team members, and also good at sensing when
that support is truly needed.
2. Openness to experience – Communicate
better, more creative, innovative.
3. Team member agreeableness – Teams do
worse when they have one or more highly
disageeable members.
 Understanding Work Teams – Team
composition – Allocation of roles
2.3 Allocation of roles :
As managers, we should know that research
suggests that we ought to put our most Able,
Experienced, and Conscientious workers in the
most central roles in a team.
Understanding Work Teams – Team
composition – Allocation of roles
 Understanding Work Teams –
Team composition – Diversity of
Members
2.4 Diversity of Members :
How does team diversity affect team performance?
Team members are generally focussed on their
similarities, i.e. commonly held information or skills. Is
that ideal?
But to realise their creative potential, diverse teams
need to focus on their differences.
The key is for members of diverse teams to
communicate what they uniquely know and also what
they do not know.
Inspirational common goal provided – teams are very
creative.
 Understanding Work Teams –
Team composition – Diversity of
2.5 Size of teams : Members
Most effective teams – 5 to 9 members.
Experts suggest using the smallest number of people who
can do the task.
Unnecessarily large teams…
1….will have Coordination issues, especially under time
pressure.
2. Social loafing.
3. More people communicate less.
If a natural working unit is larger and you want a team
effort, what do you do?
Consider breaking the group into subteams.
 Understanding Work Teams – Team
composition – Diversity of Members
2.6 Member preferences :
Not everybody is a team player.
When non team players are put in a team,
there is a direct threat to the team morale and
to individual member satisfaction.
As managers……consider individual
preferences along with abilities, personalities,
and skills.
 Understanding Work Teams – Team
Processes –Common plan and purpose
• 3. TEAM PROCESSES
• 3.1 Common plan and Purpose :
• Teams that establish a clear sense of what needs
to be done and how consistently perform better.
• Perfectly executing the wrong plan is a lost
cause.
• Effective teams show reflexivity – meaning they
reflect on and adjust their master plan when
necessary.
 Understanding Work Teams –
Team Processes – Specific
• 3.2 Specific Goals : goals
• Successful teams translate their common purpose
into specific, measurable and realistic
performance goals.
• Specific goals facilitate clear communication.
• They help teams maintain their focus on getting
results.
• Difficult goals raise team performance; eg. Goals
for quantity tend to raise quantity, goals for
accuracy raise accuracy.
 Understanding Work Teams – Team
Processes – Team efficacy
• 3.3 Team Efficacy : is the belief in success that a
team has.
• Teams that have tasted success have more belief
in their future success, which in turn motivates
them to work harder.
• What can management do to increase team
efficacy?
• 1. Help the team achieve small successes that
build confidence.
• 2. Provide training to improve members’
technical and interpersonal skills.
 Understanding Work Teams–Team
Processes–Team efficacy–Mental models
• Mental Models : Team members’ knowledge
and beliefs about how the work gets done by
the team.
• If team members have different ideas about
how to do things, the team will fight over how
to do things rather than focus on what need
to be done.
 Managing Work Teams
• Social loafing
• The tendency of individuals to put
forth less effort when they work
in groups than when they work
alone.
• Individual motivation can suffer in
groups, particularly where the
task is relatively meaningless and
uninvolving, the group is large and
unimportant, and each
individual’s contribution to the
group is not personally
identifiable.

• This phenomenon has been

termed social loafing.
Three Ways to Reduce
Social Loafing
 Understanding Work Teams – Turning
individuals into team players
As managers, what are your options to turn
individuals into team players?
1. Selecting : Hiring team players.
2. Training : Creating team players.
3. Rewarding : Providing incentives to be a
good team player.
Understanding Work Teams–Turning individuals
into team players-Selecting:Hiring team
players
• 1. Selecting : Hiring team players.
• Some people already possess the interpersonal skills to be
effective team players.
• As managers, what should you look at when hiring
people?
• Make sure candidates can fulfill their team roles as well as
technical requirements.
• When faced with candidates who lack team skills, what are
your options?
• 1. Training to become team players.
• 2. Transfer them to another unit that does not have teams.
• 3. Don’t hire them.
 Understanding Work Teams–Turning individuals into
team players-Training : Creating team players

• 2. Training : Creating team players.

• Training specialists conduct exercises that
allow employees to experience the
satisfaction teamwork can provide.
• Workshops – problem solving,
communication, negotiation, conflict-
management.
• Team building exercises – Paintball – Capture
the flag.
 Understanding Work Teams–Turning
individuals into team players-Rewarding
• 3. Rewarding : Providing incentives to be a good team player.
• Encourage cooperative efforts rather than competitive ones.
• Eg. : Hallmark cards added to its basic individual-incentive
system an annual bonus based on achievement of team goals.
How does this influence team members?
• As a result, teams select new members carefully so they will
contribute to team effectiveness (and thus team bonuses)
• It is usually best to set a cooperative tone as soon as possible
in the life of a team.
• Teams that rush from a competitive to a cooperative system
do not share information and make rushed, poor-quality
decisions.
 Intergroup relations
• Through the study of intergroup relations – how
people in one group (the ‘ingroup’) think about and
act towards members of another group (the
‘outgroup’)
Understanding Conflict
Management Styles
What is a conflict management style and why
do I need to know this?

• Conflict Management Style: Form of behavior

that a person practices in response to conflict
with others

• When living and interacting with others on

campus, you need to know how to resolve
issues in different situations.
 Conflict: Where does it come from?

• Goals

• Personality conflicts

• Scarce resources

• Styles
• Values
 The Positive Side of Conflict

• Conflict can teach you to make the most of

each situation and use it as a learning
opportunity or a leadership opportunity.

• You can also use it as an opportunity to

transform the situation into something better.
Five Styles of Conflict Management
You will experience some form of internal or external conflict while
living with roommates at some point in your college career.
Understanding how you handle conflict is important in helping you
decide how to deal with stress and manage certain situations.
 Accommodating
People who accommodate are unassertive and
very cooperative.

• Give in during a conflict

• Acknowledge they made a mistake/decide it
was no big deal
• Put relationships first, ignore issues, and try to
keep peace at any price
• Effective when the other person or party has a
better plan or solution
 Avoiding
People who avoid conflict are generally
unassertive and uncooperative.

• Avoid the conflict entirely or delay their

response instead of voicing concerns
• Can create some space in an emotional
environment
• Not a good long-term strategy
 Collaborating
Collaborators are both assertive and
cooperative.

• Assert own views while also listening to other

views and welcoming differences
• Seek a “win-win” outcome
• Identify underlying concerns of a conflict
• Create room for multiple ideas
• Requires time and effort from both parties
 Competing
People who approach conflict in a competitive way
assert themselves and do not cooperate while
pursuing their own concerns at another’s expense.

• Takes on a “win-lose” approach where one person

wins and one person loses
• Does not rely on cooperation with the other party to
reach outcome
• May be appropriate for emergencies when time is
important
 Compromising
Compromisers are moderately assertive and
moderately cooperative.

• Try to find fast, mutually acceptable solutions

to conflicts that partially satisfy both parties
• Results in a “lose-lose” approach
• Appropriate temporary solution
• Considered an easy way out when you need
more time to collaborate to find a better
solution
 Which one is best?
There is no BEST way to handle conflict. Each conflict
is different and requires a different response.

As a society, we teach:
“Two heads are better than one.” (Collaborating)
“Kill your enemies with kindness.” (Accommodating)
“Split the difference.” (Compromising)
“Leave well enough alone.” (Avoiding)
“Might makes right.” (Competing)
 Conclusion
• Different conflict management styles may be
used when faced with different situations.

• Knowing yourself and fully understanding each

situation will help you understand the conflict
management style needed.
 Negotiation
As the Chief Operating Officer of an American cell phone case manufacturer, I’m intimately

familiar with all the in’s and out’s of factory operations. On this day, like usual, the factory

floor was abuzz with the whirring of machinery. But when I walked in, I noticed that

something was different. To my immediate left, I saw a sea of broken phone cases in a pile on

the floor. And there – in the middle of the mess – stood the Chief Engineer and the Factory

Foreman who appeared to be having a heated discussion. I stepped in and asked what the

problem was. The foreman explained that a specific part was being produced incorrectly. This

created flawed cases that had to be rejected because of the imperfections and later fixed by

hand. This was resulting in overtime hours, greater expense, and not surprisingly, major stress.

The foreman believed the issue was caused by a product design error, so naturally, he wanted

the engineering department to fix the problem. He also wanted any overtime expenses to come

out of the engineering department budget. However, the engineer squarely placed the blame

on a piece of machinery that he believed to be in disrepair. They tried to work it out, but they

were at an impasse. And they were looking to me for help.

 Negotiation
• Negotiation involves discussion between two
or multiple parties with the aim of ending
differences and reaching an understanding.
Each party tries to further their interests and
also tries to attain a compromise. ... It is also
called principled or interest based
negotiation.
 Negotiation skills in Team Building
• Reinterpret a demand or ultimatum – Instead of taking a “take it or
leave it” attitude, advocate for a “put our heads together” negotiation
• Prepare for talks – Assess each side’s interests and no-deal options,
imagine possible agreements, and think about moves and countermoves
• Address the underlying concern – Honestly address the concern behind a
difficult situation
• Acknowledge and reframe – After acknowledging a question, reframe
and shift to a more positive focus
• Brainstorm and decide – By brainstorming, you can often find
unexpected solutions to difficult negotiations
• Manage wins and losses – Research shows that people prefer to hear
good news in stages rather than all at once; however, they prefer to hear
bad news in one fell swoop
 Solution for the case
• With all of this in mind, I set up a meeting with the engineer and the
foreman for later in the week. I knew that to negotiate a solution, we all
needed to truly understand the nature of the problem at hand. And by
working together, we could get to the bottom of it.
• After a careful examination, we confirmed that there was a minor design
flaw. I negotiated an agreement with the engineer whereby he would stop
work on a different project so that his team could focus on retooling the
case design immediately. And in the meantime, the foreman
acknowledged that his employees did have some free time to fix the
flawed cases; therefore, mitigating the overtime expenses.
• After all was said and done, they shook hands and went back to work.
• I thought to myself, “If only all negotiations could resolve themselves so
smoothly?” And then I remembered that with the right negotiation
techniques, they can.
Johari Window
Johari Window

• Named after the first names of

its inventors-
• Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham
• Useful models describing the
process of human interaction.
• A four paned "window," dividing
personal awareness into four
different types
• as represented by its four
quadrants: open, hidden, blind, and
unknown.
• The lines dividing the four panes are
like window shades, which can move
as an interaction progresses.
• Known to Self Not Known to Self

• Known to Others
OPEN BLIND

• Not Known to Others

HIDDEN UNKNOWN
Open

The "open" quadrant

• 1.
represents things that both I
know about myself, and that
you know about me
Blind

• 2. The "blind" quadrant

represents things that you
know about me, but that I am
unaware of
Hidden

• 3. The "hidden" quadrant

represents things that I know
about myself, that you do not
know
Unknown

• 4. The "unknown" quadrant

represents things that neither
I know about myself, nor you
know about me
• One way of enlarging the open
quadrant is through self-
disclosure,
• A give and take process between
me and the people I interact
with.
• As I share something about
myself (I move information from
my hidden quadrant into the
 Open
Blind

Self Disclosure

Hidden Unknown
• If the other party is interested
in getting to know me, they
will reciprocate, by similarly
disclosing information in their
hidden quadrant
• We also gain knowledge about
ourselves by receiving feedback
from others this enables me to
learn more about aspect of
myself that I am unaware of and
therefore moving information
from my BLIND quadrant into
the OPEN.
• As I share more and gain more information
about myself I begin to gain insights
through introspection about aspects of
myself that both I and others were
unaware of, things like impulses that drive
us, motives and instincts, those less
tangible things that we just accept but
haven’t given much thought to. These
insights help move information from the
unknown quadrant into the OPEN