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Agriculture Lesson Note for

Grade11
Animal Feeds and Feeding
Practices
 UNIT 5
Animal Feeds and Feeding Practices
5.1. Feed resource in Ethiopia
Learning objectives
At the end of this lesson students able to:
 Identify types of animal feeds and available resources in their location.
 Define types of animal feeds and their uses.
Animal nutrition is the science of feed preparation and feeding.
Feed is the most important factor that determines animal performance and
profitability in many cases.
The largest operating cost in a livestock production enterprise is the feed cost.
It varies from 50% to 80% depending on the operating area in animal production.
Farmers must supply the right amount of feed to the animals.
Overfeeding is wasteful and costly.
Underfeeding will decrease animal performance and profitability.
The feasibility of livestock enterprises always depends on proper animal feeding
and nutrition.
Livestock feed resources available in Ethiopia are natural pastures, crop residues,
improved forages and agro-industrial by-products.
These are described below.
 Natural Pasture
Natural pastures are naturally occurring grasses, shrubs and tree forages (edible
portions of plants).
In natural pasture, forages grow naturally on their own and are feed upon by farm
animals.
Natural pastures usually provide more than 60% of livestock feed.
Grazing is the least expensive way to deliver feed to animals.
Natural pasture is of good quality in the wet season and so animals have plenty to
feed in order to maintain their productivity.
Pasture usually diminishes in dry seasons.
Natural pasture
Some common management practices in pasture to ensure continuous supply
include grazing land management, fertilizer application, oversowing legumes, etc.
Application of fertilizers (e.g., urea and DAP) in the pasture ensures rapid and
succulent growth of pasture because of increase in the fertility of the soil.
Weeds, pests and diseases should be prevented to ensure rapid growth of pasture
crops.
The correct number of animals should be placed on a pasture to graze.
Avoid overgrazing.
  Crop Residues
Crop residues are the remaining portion of the crops after harvesting the main crop
for human consumption.
Several forms of crop residues provide the majority of livestock feed.
 These include straws, stovers, cobs, hulls or chaffs, etc.
Crop residues are generally low in crude protein, energy and micronutrients
(vitamins and minerals).
They are fibrous and of low palatability and digestibility.
Supplementing them with improved forages (forage legumes and browse species),
grains and other concentrates is often recommended to maximize animal
productivity.
Crop residues generally are not suitable for pig and poultry feeding.
a) wheat stubble, b) millet straw, c) maize stover, d) barley straw, e) teff straw
  Forage Crops
Forage crops are plants cultivated for their edible vegetative portions.
Used in fresh or preserved forms of feeding livestock.
 There are two basic types of forage crops.
These are grasses and legumes.
Grasses serve as the best and cheapest bulk feed for ruminants.
Grasses produce more yield per unit area than legumes.
Grasses are higher in fiber than legumes.
Rhodes grass, Sudan grass and Elephant grass are some examples.
Legumes contain protein, vitamins and minerals than grasses.
Examples of legumes used for feed are Alfalfa, Vetch and Sesbania sesban.
The nutritive value and digestibility of forage crops generally declines as they
mature.
Forage production is a profitable business idea because feed shortage is a major
a) Grass, b) Legume
 Agro-industrial By-products
These feed resources are by-products obtained from various agro-
industries.
They usually supplement crop residues such as straw.
The commonly used agro-industrial by-products are: flour milling by-products,
oil seed cakes, molasses and brewery by-products.
They are rich either in energy or protein, compared to pastures and crop
residues.
Flour milling by-products: are generally very palatable and are readily
consumed by all classes of farm animals.
Wheat bran, wheat middling and rice bran are some examples of milling by-
products used as animal feed.
Brans are pleasant-tasting feed to animals.
•They are also laxative animal feed.
•They can be used to supplement low quality feeds such as crop residues.
•Brans are especially good sources of thiamine and niacin vitamins.
•They supply fair amounts of protein and energy.
•Cereal middlings and rice polish are lower in fiber and higher in energy than brans.
 Bran is consists of the outer layers (cuticle, pericarp and seed coat) combined with
small amounts of starchy endosperm of the kernel.
 It is one of the major agro-industrial by-products used in animal feeding.
Examples are: wheat bran, maize bran and rice bran.
 Cereal middling are the product of the flour milling process that is not flour.
Examples are wheat middling and maize middling.
Rice polish is a by-product of rice obtained in the milling operation of brushing the
grain to polish the kernel.
Laxative is a feed which ferment quickly in the stomach and therefore stimulates
elimination of the bowels (wastes).
Oilseed cakes or meals: Oilseed cakes are the residues obtained after the extraction
of oil from oilseeds.
The oilseed cakes have high protein, carbohydrate, mineral and nitrogen contents.
Soybean meal, noug seed cake, cotton seed cake, peanut cake and ground nut cake
are examples of oil by-products used as animal feed.
Molasses: is a by-product of sugar industry.
Molasses is a good source of energy (54% TDN).
 It is low in protein (3%) and minerals. It is an appetizer and dust settler.
This means that animals like the taste and it stops dry food from becoming dusty.
Brewery by-products: The main by-products of breweries are spent grain and
spent yeast.
Brewer’s spent grain contain good protein, fiber, and energy that can be used as
animal feed.
They are higher in fiber, protein, and minerals than are the initial grains.
Brewer’s spent yeast is also a cheap source of protein, minerals and vitamin B-
complexes.

a) oilseed cake, b) molasses, c) brewer’s grain

 5.2. Classification of Feed Resources
When classifying feed resources for livestock, it's important to consider their
nutritional contributions.
Major Classifications:
Roughages:
 Are bulky feeds.
 Are high in fiber and lower in digestible energy.
 Roughages are feed stuff which contain more than 18% crude fiber and less than
60% Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN).
 There are two main forms of roughages: dry roughage and green or succulent
roughage.
 Dry roughages include hay, straw, stover, husks and sugarcane bagasse.
•They contain about 80 to 90% of dry matter.
Green or succulent roughage include grasses, legumes, Silage.
• Growing pastures provide roughage that has high water content and low dry matter
(10 to 30%).
Concentrates:
These are high in digestible energy and lower in fiber.
They are further divided into:
Energy Feeds:
High in carbohydrates, medium in protein (<18% crude
protein)
Examples: Grains (corn, barley, oats), fats and oils, bran,
middlings, and molasses.
Protein Supplements:
High in protein & concentrates contain more than 18% CP.
Examples: Soybean meal, cottonseed meal, Oil seed cakes,
Meat meal, dried blood meal and fish meal.
Other Important Categories:
Mineral Supplements:
Provide essential minerals like calcium, phosphorus, and trace minerals.
Vitamin Supplements:
Provide essential vitamins like vitamin A, D, and E.
 5.3. Nutrient Requirements of Farm Animals
 Feed consumed by animals gets digested and nutrients absorbed.
Nutrients are elements, compounds or groups of compounds that are required and/
or used for animal nourishment and performance.
Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins and water are the basic animal
nutrients.
Nutrient requirement refers to the minimum amount of nutrients necessary to
meet an animal’s needs for maintenance (neither gain nor loss), growth, reproduction,
lactation (milk production), work and good health.
 Water constitutes more than one-half of the animals’ body.
It is vital for all processes such as digestion, blood circulation , waste elimination
and body temperature regulates.
 Water is the medium in which all the nutrients are dissolved.
Carbohydrates: the main source of carbohydrates in livestock feed are cereals
include wheat, maize and sorghum.
 Carbohydrates: the main source of carbohydrates in livestock feed are cereals
(wheat, maize and sorghum), crop residues, molasses, forages and hay.
 Fats in small amounts are important in the animal diet.
 Fats act as storehouses of energy.
 Normal roughages such as grazing pasture contain very little fat.
 The main source of fats are oilseeds cakes such as soybean meal or cottonseed cake
contain up to 10% fats and oils.
 Proteins are polymers that are formed through the combination of amino
acid molecules.
Crucial for muscle growth, tissue repair, and milk/egg production.
 Protein requirements vary based on the animal's growth stage and production level.
There is no storage of protein in the body.

This makes it necessary to provide animals with the amount of protein needed each

day.

Excess protein is deaminated and converted into fat in the form of triglycerides and

is stored in the body as a source of energy.

 Minerals: are inorganic elements.

 Macro-minerals (calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K)

and sodium (Na)).

 Micro-minerals or trace minerals are required in small amounts.
Eg: Copper (Cu), iodine (I), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn) and zink (Zn) .
 They also regulate the body’s chemical processes.
 Vitamins: are organic compounds required in small amounts.

Fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) and water-soluble (B complex, C).

Water-soluble vitamins cannot be stored in the body and must be taken in daily.

Vitamins play essential roles in various metabolic processes, immune function, and

reproduction.
Source of Carbohydrates:
Crop residues, straw, hay, Cereals , milling by-products , sweet potato vine, sugar
cane tops, molasses, atela, etc.
 Signs of deficiency of carbohydrates:
•Reduced feed intake, low weight gain, prolonged fattening, drop in milk yield, etc.
 Source of fat:
Oil seed cakes/meals such as soybean meal; tallow, fish meal and oil, etc.
 Signs of deficiency of fat:
Poor skin and hair coat, inability to maintain a successful pregnancy, and potentially
inadequate absorption of fat- soluble vitamins.
 Source of protein:
Leguminous plants, oilseed cakes, etc.
Signs of deficiency of Protein:
Low weight gain, stunted growth, poor product quality, etc.
 Source of Vitamins
Vegetables, green fodders, vitamin preparations, etc.
 Signs of deficiency of Vitamins
•Rough and loose hair coat, coughing, nasal discharge, watery eyes, diarrhea,
staggering gait, scaly skin, pneumonia, etc.
 Source of Minerals
Agro-industrial residues, bone meal, limestone, common salt, bole salt, mineral
lick, etc.
Signs of deficiency of Minerals
•Reduced fodder intake, low weight gain, chewing and suckling of wood and metal;
stiff joints, weakened bones and teeth, impaired energy utilization, drop in milk
production, etc.
 Source of Water
Water bodies, succulent feeds
 Signs of deficiency of Water
• Reduced feed intake, low weight gain and milk yield.
5.4. Feed Formulation Practices
Feed formulation is the process of determining the optimal combination of feed
ingredients to meet the nutritional requirements of animals at different life stages,
while also considering cost-effectiveness and other factors.
Feed formulation is the process of quantifying the amounts of feed ingredients to
be combined to form a single uniform mixture for a particular animal.
The formulated feed should meet animals’ nutrient requirements.

Types of Rations
Generally, there are two types of rations: maintenance and production rations.
1. Maintenance ration: the minimum quantity of feed required to maintain an
animal.
 When an animal receives maintenance ration, the body mass will remain constant.
2. Production ration: in addition to the feed required for maintenance, certain
nutrients are required for the production of products like milk, eggs and
 Characteristics of a Good Ration
satisfy the total dry matter requirement of an animal based on weight.
provide highly digestible nutrients, including enough minerals and vitamins.
be palatable to the target animal.
be fairly bulky, to satisfy hunger and expel undigested material.
be digestible - this can be improved by grinding, crushing, etc.
be fresh and free from undesirable weeds and dust.
Method of Balancing Ration
 Farm animals must be fed a balanced diet in order for the animal to produce what
the farmer requires (e.g., egg, meat and milk).
 Using the basic information on preparation of a good ration, there are many ways
to ensure a balanced diet.
These include Trial and Error method, Pearson Square method, substitution
formulation and computer-assisted formulation.
The Pearson Square Method is the most well-known method of balancing animal
diets.
1. Trial and Error Method :
 This involves making adjustments to the ration based on observation and
experience.
You start with an initial ration, monitor the animal's performance (weight gain, milk
production, etc.), and make gradual changes until you achieve the desired results.
2. Substitution Formulation Method :
 Involves replacing a portion of one feedstuff with another while maintaining the
overall nutrient balance.
3. Computer-Assisted Formulation Method :
 Uses software programs to optimize rations based on a large number of feedstuffs
and constraints (nutrient requirements, cost, availability, etc.).
4. Pearson Square Method :
How it works: A graphical method used to balance two feedstuffs to achieve a desired
nutrient concentration.
 It's particularly useful for balancing protein or energy content.
To make this tool work, one of the feeds used must be higher in Metabolisable energy
(ME) or CP than the desired level and the other feed must be below the desired level.
The following steps show how to calculate for CP using the Pearson Square method.
Step 1: Draw a square. Insert the % of CP desired in the final ration in the middle of
the square.
Step 2: Place the name of the first feed and its % of CP in the upper left corner. Place
the name of the second feed and its % of CP in the lower left corner.
Step 3: Subtract the desired % of CP (middle of the square) from the feed CP % (on the
left of the square) across the diagonal and add the results to the right side of the square.
• top left – middle = bottom right
• bottom left – middle = top right
 Note: disregard the negative or positive value of the numbers.
 Step 4: Calculate the weight of each feed by adding the two figures on the right
and then dividing each number on the right by this total and multiplying by the
weight of feed required.
 The results of the calculation show the amount of each of the two feeds that
should be combined to produce a balanced ration.
Repeat for ME as required.
Example 1: A farmer has home-grown maize (CP = 9.5%) and purchases Soybean
meal (SBM) as a protein supplement (CP = 42%). The desired CP for the feed is
16%.
 The farmer uses the Pearson Square method.
 If the farmer aims at preparing 100 kg of the ration in the above proportion, how
many kgs of maize and Soybean meal should be mixed?
 Maize: (26 ÷ 32.5) x 100 = 80.0 kg
 SBM: (6.5 ÷ 32.5) x 100 = 20.0 kg
 Therefore, to formulate 100 kg of feed with 16% CP, the farmer should make up
the feed using 80 kg maize and 20 kg soybean meal.
 5.5. Feed Conservation and Compound Feed Manufacturing
5.5.1. Feed Conservation
Livestock must be fed all year round.
Green or succulent feed is only available at certain times of the
year.
 Forage production decreases during dry periods.
Forage can be conserved to feed livestock during periods of
shortage.
Conservation enhances animal productivity by overcoming
seasonal nutritional deficits.
The common methods of forage conservation are hay and silage
making.
 5.5.1.1. Hay making
Hay is forage harvested during the growing period and preserved
by drying.
The aim of hay making is to reduce the moisture contents of green
crops from 70 - 90% to 15 - 20%.
This process of reducing moisture is called curing.
Curing is normally accomplished with energy provided by the sun
and wind.
It is a method to preserve grasses, legumes and fodders for feeding
at a later stage.
Hay can be stored in a bale or tripod system.
Various options exist for storing hay bales, be they small squares,
large squares, rectangular bales, or round bales.
The baling process makes the compact cubical bundles of the
forages.
This reduces the requirement of space in comparison to loose or
chopped hay.
The bales may be stored in open environment or in the barn.
Tripod system a three-legged stand of hay. It helps to drain rainy
water.
 The average height of this stand may be 2 to 3 meters.
Hay is the oldest and still the most important way of conserving
feed.
 It can be made with little cost other than labor.
 Hay can be made with simple equipment.
Hay is easy to transport and store.
 It can be fed with little or no wastage.
Hay is often marketed as a cash crop, usually baled.
Hay has also some shortcomings.
It varies in nutrient content and palatability more than any feed.
It is very dependent on the weather condition.
Late crop harvest also affects hay quality because it decreases the
nutrient content of the feed.
a. Hay storage: a baled, b) tripod system
 5.5.1.2. Silage making
Silage is the preserved material produced by the controlled
fermentation of green crops under anaerobic conditions.
The process of silage making is also known as ensilage.
The main purpose of silage making is to preserve succulent
feeds for usage at times of scarcity.
Very good silage can be made from grasses or grass-legume
mixtures or fodders (e.g., maize and sorghum).
Grasses should be harvested at head forming stage, while
legumes at early blooming.
Fodders at dough (milky) stage.
The crop should be wilted, chopped and stored in a silo.
The process takes 2 to 4 weeks for the best production and feed
intake.

Schematic presentation of silage making process

 5.5.2. Compound Feed Manufacturing
Manufacturing animal feed involves blending several raw feed
ingredients of different physical, chemical and nutritional
composition into a homogenous mixture.
 The mixture should meet the nutrient requirements of the
target species.
 Cereals and agro-industrial by-products are the main
ingredients of commercial feeds in Ethiopia.
Compound feed may also contain salt, limestone and premixes.
The sequence of the operation and the size and sophistication
of the equipment may vary with the output of the required feed.
Quality control is essential at all stages of the operation.
Premixes are complex mixtures of vitamins, minerals, trace
elements and other feed additives.
They are incorporated at small levels in a compound feed.
Premixes are designed to provide a balanced contri- bution to
the animal's needs.

A flow chart that shows the main stages of compound feed production