Chapter 4: outline

4.1 Overview of 4.4 Generalized

Network layer Forward and SDN
• data plane • match
• control plane • action
4.2 What’s inside a • OpenFlow
router examples of
4.3 IP: Internet Protocol match-plus-action
• datagram format in action
• fragmentation
• IPv4 addressing
• network address
translation
• IPv6
Network Layer: Data 4-1
Plane
Chapter 4: network layer
chapter goals:
 understand principles behind network
layer services, focusing on data plane:
• network layer service models
• forwarding versus routing
• how a router works
• generalized forwarding
 instantiation, implementation in the
Internet

Network Layer: Data 4-2

Plane
Network layer
 transport segment from
application
transport
network
sending to receiving data link
physical

host network
network
data link
network
data link

 on sending side
physical physical
data link
physical network network

encapsulates segments data link

physical
data link
physical

into datagrams
network
 on receiving side,
network
data link data link
physical physical

delivers segments to
network
data link
physical
transport layer network
application
transport
 network layer protocols network
data link
physical
network
data link
network
data link

in every host, router data link

physical
physical physical

 router examines header

fields in all IP
datagrams passing
through it
Network Layer: Data 4-3
Plane
Two key network-layer
functions
network-layer functions: analogy: taking a trip
forwarding: move  forwarding: process
packets from router’s of getting through
input to appropriate single interchange
router output
routing: determine
route taken by packets
 routing: process of
from source to planning trip from
destination source to
• routing algorithms destination

Network Layer: Data 4-4

Plane
 Network layer: data plane, control
plane
Data plane Control plane
local, per-router network-wide logic
function determines how datagram
determines how is routed among routers
datagram arriving on along end-end path from
router input port is source host to destination
forwarded to router host
output port two control-plane
forwarding
values in arriving function approaches:
packet header
• traditional routing
0111 1
algorithms:
3
2
implemented in routers
• software-defined
networking (SDN):
implemented in Layer: Data 4-5
Network
Plane
Per-router control plane
Individual routing algorithm components in each and every
router interact in the control plane

Routing
Algorithm
control
plane

data
plane

values in arriving
packet header
0111 1
2
3

Network Layer: Control 5-6

Plane
Logically centralized control plane
A distinct (typically remote) controller interacts with local
control agents (CAs)

Remote Controller

control
plane

data
plane

CA
CA CA CA CA
values in arriving
packet header

0111 1
2
3

Network Layer: Control 5-7

Plane
Network service model
Q: What service model for “channel”
transporting datagrams from sender to
receiver?
example services example services for
for individual a flow of
datagrams: datagrams:
 guaranteed delivery  in-order datagram
 guaranteed delivery delivery
with less than 40  guaranteed minimum
msec delay bandwidth to flow
 restrictions on
changes in inter-
packet spacing

Network Layer: Data 4-8

Plane
 Network layer service
models:
Guarantees ?
Network Service Congestion
Architecture Model Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback

Internet best effort none no no no no (inferred

via loss)
ATM CBR constant yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM VBR guaranteed yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM ABR guaranteed no yes no yes
minimum
ATM UBR none no yes no no

Network Layer: Data 4-9

Plane
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 Overview of 4.4 Generalized
Network layer Forward and SDN
• data plane • match
• control plane • action
4.2 What’s inside a • OpenFlow
router examples of
4.3 IP: Internet Protocol match-plus-action
• datagram format in action
• fragmentation
• IPv4 addressing
• network address
translation
• IPv6
Network Layer: Data 4-10
Plane
 Router architecture overview
 high-level view of generic router architecture:

routing, management
routing control plane (software)
processor operates in millisecond
time frame
forwarding data plane
(hardware) operttes
in nanosecond
timeframe
high-seed
switching
fabric

router input ports router output ports

Network Layer: Data 4-11

Plane
 Input port functions
lookup,
link forwarding
line layer switch
termination protocol fabric
(receive)
queueing

physical layer:
bit-level reception
data link layer: decentralized switching:
e.g., Ethernet  using header field values, lookup
see chapter 5 output port using forwarding table in
input port memory (“match plus
action”)
 goal: complete input port processing at
‘line speed’
 queuing: if datagrams arrive faster
than forwarding rate into switch fabric
Network Layer: Data 4-12
Plane
 Input port functions
lookup,
link forwarding
line layer switch
termination protocol fabric
(receive)
queueing

physical layer:
bit-level reception decentralized switching:
data link layer:  using header field values, lookup output
e.g., Ethernet port using forwarding table in input port
see chapter 5 memory (“match plus action”)
 destination-based forwarding: forward
based only on destination IP address
(traditional)
 generalized forwarding: forward based
on any set of header field values

Network Layer: Data 4-13

Plane
 Destination-based
forwarding
forwarding table
Destination Address Range Link Interface

11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

through 0
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through 1
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

through 2
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111

otherwise 3

: but what happens if ranges don’t divide up so nicely?

Network Layer: Data 4-14
Plane
 Longest prefix matching
longest prefix matching
when looking for forwarding table entry
for given destination address, use longest
address prefix that matches destination
address.
Destination Address Range Link interface
11001000 00010111 00010*** ********* 0
11001000 00010111 00011000 ********* 1
11001000 00010111 00011*** ********* 2
otherwise 3

examples:
DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 which interface?
DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 which interface?
Network Layer: Data 4-15
Plane
Longest prefix matching
 we’ll see why longest prefix matching is
used shortly, when we study addressing
 longest prefix matching: often
performed using ternary content
addressable memories (TCAMs)
• content addressable: present address to
TCAM: retrieve address in one clock cycle,
regardless of table size
• Cisco Catalyst: can up ~1M routing table
entries in TCAM

Network Layer: Data 4-16

Plane
Switching fabrics
 transfer packet from input buffer to
appropriate output buffer
 switching rate: rate at which packets
can be transfer from inputs to outputs
• often measured as multiple of input/output line rate
• N inputs: switching rate N times line rate desirable
 three types of switching fabrics

memory

memory bus crossbar

Network Layer: Data 4-17

Plane
Switching via memory
first generation routers:
 traditional computers with switching under direct control of CPU
 packet copied to system’s memory
 speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus crossings per datagram)

input output
port memory port
(e.g., (e.g.,
Ethernet) Ethernet)

system bus

Network Layer: Data 4-18

Plane
Switching via a bus
 datagram from input port
memory
to output port memory via
a shared bus
 bus contention: switching
speed limited by bus bus
bandwidth
 32 Gbps bus, Cisco 5600:
sufficient speed for access
and enterprise routers

Network Layer: Data 4-19

Plane
Switching via interconnection
network
 overcome bus bandwidth
limitations
 banyan networks, crossbar,
other interconnection nets
initially developed to connect
processors in multiprocessor
 advanced design: fragmenting
datagram into fixed length cells, crossbar
switch cells through the fabric.
 Cisco 12000: switches 60 Gbps
through the interconnection
network

Network Layer: Data 4-20

Plane
Input port queuing
 fabric slower than input ports combined ->
queueing may occur at input queues
• queueing delay and loss due to input buffer
overflow!
 Head-of-the-Line (HOL) blocking: queued
datagram at front of queue prevents others in
queue from moving forward

switch switch
fabric fabric

output port contention: one packet time

only one red datagram can later: green
be transferred. packet
lower red packet is blocked experiences HOL
blocking
Network Layer: Data 4-21
Plane
Output ports This slide in HUGELY important!

datagram
switch buffer link
fabric layer line
protocol termination
queueing (send)

 buffering required when datagrams arrive from fabric faster than the
transmission rate Datagram (packets) can be
 scheduling discipline chooses among queued datagrams for transmission
lost due to congestion, lack of
buffers
Priority scheduling – who gets best
performance, network neutrality

Network Layer: Data 4-22

Plane
Output port queueing

switch
switch
fabric
fabric

at t, packets more one packet time later

from input to output

 buffering when arrival rate via switch exceeds output

line speed
 queueing (delay) and loss due to output port buffer
overflow!

Network Layer: Data 4-23

Plane
How much buffering?
 RFC 3439 rule of thumb: average
buffering equal to “typical” RTT (say
250 msec) times link capacity C
• e.g., C = 10 Gpbs link: 2.5 Gbit buffer
 recent recommendation: with N flows,
buffering equal to
RTT . C
N

Network Layer: Data 4-24

Plane
Scheduling mechanisms
 scheduling: choose next packet to send on
link
 FIFO (first in first out) scheduling: send in
order of arrival to queue
• real-world example?
• discard policy: if packet arrives to full queue: who
to discard?
• tail drop: drop arriving packet
• priority: drop/remove on priority basis
• random: drop/remove randomly

packet packet
arrivals queue link departures
(waiting area) (server)

Network Layer: Data 4-25

Plane
Scheduling policies:
priority
high priority queue
priority scheduling: (waiting area)
send highest arrivals departures
priority queued
packet classify link
 multiple classes, low priority queue
(server)

with different (waiting area)

priorities 2
1 3 4 5
• class may depend arrivals
on marking or
other header info, packet
in 1 3 2 4 5
e.g. IP source/dest, service

port numbers, etc. departures

• real world 1 3 2 4 5
example?
Network Layer: Data 4-26
Plane
Scheduling policies: still
more
Round Robin (RR) scheduling:
 multiple classes
 cyclically scan class queues, sending one complete packet from each class (if available)
 real world example?

2
1 3 4 5
arrivals

packet
in 1 3 2 4 5
service

departures
1 3 3 4 5

Network Layer: Data 4-27

Plane
Scheduling policies: still
more
Weighted Fair Queuing (WFQ):
 generalized Round Robin
 each class gets weighted amount of
service in each cycle
 real-world example?

Network Layer: Data 4-28

Plane
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 Overview of 4.4 Generalized
Network layer Forward and SDN
• data plane • match
• control plane • action
4.2 What’s inside a • OpenFlow
router examples of
4.3 IP: Internet Protocol match-plus-action
• datagram format in action
• fragmentation
• IPv4 addressing
• network address
translation
• IPv6
Network Layer: Data 4-29
Plane
The Internet network layer
host, router network layer functions:

transport layer: TCP, UDP

routing protocols IP protocol

• path selection • addressing conventions
• RIP, OSPF, BGP • datagram format
network • packet handling conventions
layer forwarding
table
ICMP
protocol
• error reporting
• router “signaling”
link layer

physical layer

Network Layer: Data 4-30

Plane
 IP datagram format
IP protocol version 32 bits
number total datagram
header length type of length (bytes)
ver head. length
(bytes) len service for
“type” of data fragment fragmentation/
16-bit identifier flgs
offset reassembly
max number time to upper header
remaining hops live layer checksum
(decremented at
32 bit source IP address
each router)
32 bit destination IP address
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to options (if any) e.g. timestamp,
record route
how much overhead? data taken, specify
 20 bytes of TCP (variable length, list of routers
 20 bytes of IP
typically a TCP to visit.
 = 40 bytes + app
or UDP segment)
layer overhead

Network Layer: Data 4-31

Plane
 IP fragmentation,
reassembly
 network links have MTU
(max.transfer size) -
largest possible link-
level frame fragmentation:

…
in: one large datagram
• different link types, out: 3 smaller datagrams
different MTUs
 large IP datagram
divided (“fragmented”)
within net reassembly
• one datagram
becomes several
datagrams
…
• “reassembled” only at
final destination
• IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments
Network Layer: Data 4-32
Plane
 IP fragmentation,
reassembly
length ID fragflag offset
example: =4000 =x =0 =0
 4000 byte
datagram one large datagram becomes
several smaller datagrams
 MTU = 1500
bytes
1480 bytes in length ID fragflag offset
data field =1500 =x =1 =0

offset = length ID fragflag offset

1480/8 =1500 =x =1 =185

length ID fragflag offset

=1040 =x =0 =370

Network Layer: Data 4-33

Plane
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 Overview of 4.4 Generalized
Network layer Forward and SDN
• data plane • match
• control plane • action
4.2 What’s inside a • OpenFlow
router examples of
4.3 IP: Internet Protocol match-plus-action
• datagram format in action
• fragmentation
• IPv4 addressing
• network address
translation
• IPv6
Network Layer: Data 4-34
Plane
IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
 IP address: 32-bit
identifier for host, 223.1.2.1

router interface 223.1.1.2

 interface: 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

connection between
host/router and 223.1.1.3
223.1.3.27

physical link 223.1.2.2

• router’s typically have

multiple interfaces
• host typically has one 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
or two interfaces (e.g.,
wired Ethernet,
wireless 802.11)
 IP addresses 223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
associated with each
interface 223 1 1 1

Network Layer: Data 4-35

Plane
 IP addressing: introduction
223.1.1.1
Q: how are interfaces
actually connected? 223.1.2.1

A: we’ll learn about 223.1.1.2 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

that in chapter 5, 6.
223.1.3.27
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2

A: wired Ethernet interfaces

connected by Ethernet switches
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

For now: don’t need to worry

about how one interface is
connected to another (with no
A: wireless WiFi interfaces
intervening router)
connected by WiFi base station

Network Layer: Data 4-36

Plane
Subnets
 IP address: 223.1.1.1
• subnet part - high
order bits 223.1.1.2 223.1.2.1
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
• host part - low
order bits 223.1.2.2
 what’s a subnet ? 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27

• device interfaces subnet

with same subnet
223.1.3.2
part of IP address 223.1.3.1
• can physically
reach each other
without intervening network consisting of 3 subnets
router

Network Layer: Data 4-37

Plane
Subnets
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24
recipe 223.1.1.1

 to determine the 223.1.1.2 223.1.2.1

subnets, detach 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9

each interface 223.1.2.2

from its host or 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27

router, creating subnet

islands of isolated
networks 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

 each isolated
network is called 223.1.3.0/24
a subnet
subnet mask: /24
Network Layer: Data 4-38
Plane
Subnets 223.1.1.2

how many? 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.4

223.1.1.3

223.1.9.2 223.1.7.0

223.1.9.1 223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1 223.1.8.0

223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27

223.1.2.1 223.1.2.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

Network Layer: Data 4-39

Plane
IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
• subnet portion of address of arbitrary
length
• address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is #
bits in subnet portion of address
subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23

Network Layer: Data 4-40

Plane
IP addresses: how to get
one?
Q: How does a host get IP address?

 hard-coded by system admin in a file

• Windows: control-panel->network->configuration-
>tcp/ip->properties
• UNIX: /etc/rc.config
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
dynamically get address from as server
• “plug-and-play”

Network Layer: Data 4-41

Plane
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol
goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from network
server when it joins network
• can renew its lease on address in use
• allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while
connected/“on”)
• support for mobile users who want to join network (more shortly)
DHCP overview:
• host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg [optional]
• DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg [optional]
• host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
• DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg

Network Layer: Data 4-42

Plane
DHCP client-server
scenario
DHCP
223.1.1.0/24
server
223.1.1.1 223.1.2.1

223.1.1.2 arriving DHCP

223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
client needs
address in this
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2 network
223.1.1.3

223.1.2.0/24

223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

223.1.3.0/24

Network Layer: Data 4-43

Plane
DHCP client-server
scenario
DHCP server: 223.1.2.5 DHCP discover arriving
client
src : 0.0.0.0, 68
Broadcast: is there a
dest.: 255.255.255.255,67
DHCP server
yiaddr: 0.0.0.0out
transaction
there?ID: 654

DHCP offer
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
Broadcast: I’m a DHCP
dest: 255.255.255.255, 68
server! Here’s an IP
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
transaction
address youID:can
654 use
lifetime: 3600 secs
DHCP request
src: 0.0.0.0, 68
dest:: 255.255.255.255, 67
Broadcast: OK. I’ll
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
take that IPID:address!
transaction 655
lifetime: 3600 secs

DHCP ACK
src: 223.1.2.5, 67
dest: 255.255.255.255,
Broadcast: 68
OK. You’ve
yiaddrr: 223.1.2.4
gottransaction
that IPID:address!
655
lifetime: 3600 secs

Network Layer: Data 4-44

Plane
DHCP: more than IP
addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated
IP address on subnet:
• address of first-hop router for client
• name and IP address of DNS sever
• network mask (indicating network versus
host portion of address)

Network Layer: Data 4-45

Plane
DHCP: example
DHCP DHCP  connecting laptop needs
DHCP UDP its IP address, addr of
DHCP IP first-hop router, addr of
DHCP Eth DNS server: use DHCP
Phy
DHCP
 DHCP request
encapsulated in UDP,
DHCP DHCP 168.1.1.1 encapsulated in IP,
DHCP UDP encapsulated in 802.1
DHCP IP  Ethernet frame
DHCP Eth router with DHCP
Phy server built into broadcast (dest:
router FFFFFFFFFFFF) on LAN,
received at router
running DHCP
 Ethernet server
demuxed to IP
demuxed, UDP
demuxed to DHCP

Network Layer: Data 4-46

Plane
DHCP: example
 DCP server formulates
DHCP DHCP
DHCP UDP DHCP ACK containing
DHCP IP client’s IP address, IP
DHCP Eth address of first-hop
Phy router for client, name &
IP address of DNS server

 encapsulation of
DHCP DHCP DHCP server, frame
DHCP UDP forwarded to client,
DHCP IP demuxing up to
Eth router with DHCP
DHCP
DHCP at client
 client
DHCP
Phy server built into now knows its
router IP address, name
and IP address of
DSN server, IP
address of its first-
hop router

Network Layer: Data 4-47

Plane
 DHCP:
Wireshark Message type: Boot Reply (2)
reply
output (home
Hardware type: Ethernet
Hardware address length: 6
Hops: 0
LAN) Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
Seconds elapsed: 0
Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast)
Message type: Boot Request (1)
Hardware type: Ethernet Client IP address: 192.168.1.101 (192.168.1.101)
Hardware address length: 6 Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Hops: 0
Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7
request Next server IP address: 192.168.1.1 (192.168.1.1)
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0)
Seconds elapsed: 0 Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast) Server host name not given
Client IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Boot file name not given
Your (client) IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Magic cookie: (OK)
Next server IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP ACK
Relay agent IP address: 0.0.0.0 (0.0.0.0) Option: (t=54,l=4) Server Identifier = 192.168.1.1
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a) Option: (t=1,l=4) Subnet Mask = 255.255.255.0
Server host name not given Option: (t=3,l=4) Router = 192.168.1.1
Boot file name not given Option: (6) Domain Name Server
Magic cookie: (OK) Length: 12; Value: 445747E2445749F244574092;
Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP Request IP Address: 68.87.71.226;
Option: (61) Client identifier IP Address: 68.87.73.242;
Length: 7; Value: 010016D323688A; IP Address: 68.87.64.146
Hardware type: Ethernet Option: (t=15,l=20) Domain Name = "hsd1.ma.comcast.net."
Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a)
Option: (t=50,l=4) Requested IP Address = 192.168.1.101
Option: (t=12,l=5) Host Name = "nomad"
Option: (55) Parameter Request List
Length: 11; Value: 010F03062C2E2F1F21F92B
1 = Subnet Mask; 15 = Domain Name
3 = Router; 6 = Domain Name Server
44 = NetBIOS over TCP/IP Name Server
……

Network Layer: Data 4-48

Plane
IP addresses: how to get
one?
Q: how does network get subnet part of IP
addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider
ISP’s address space

ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20

Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/23

Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23

Network Layer: Data 4-49

Plane
 Hierarchical addressing: route
aggregation
erarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routin
formation:

Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
“Send me anything
200.23.18.0/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”

Network Layer: Data 4-50

Plane
 Hierarchical addressing: more specific
routes
ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1

Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23

“Send me anything
with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
Organization 1 beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23”
200.23.18.0/23

Network Layer: Data 4-51

Plane
IP addressing: the last word...

Q: how does an ISP get block of

addresses?
A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for
Assigned
Names and Numbers
http://www.icann.org/
• allocates addresses
• manages DNS
• assigns domain names, resolves
disputes

Network Layer: Data 4-52

Plane
NAT: network address
translation
rest of local network
Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 10.0.0.1

10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7

10.0.0.3

all datagrams leaving datagrams with source or

local destination in this network
network have same have 10.0.0/24 address for
single source NAT IP source, destination (as usual)
address:
138.76.29.7,different Network Layer: Data 4-53
Plane
NAT: network address
translation
motivation: local network uses just one IP
address as far as outside world is
concerned:
 range of addresses not needed from ISP:
just one IP address for all devices
 can change addresses of devices in local
network without notifying outside world
 can change ISP without changing
addresses of devices in local network
 devices inside local net not explicitly
addressable, visible by outside world (a
security plus)
Network Layer: Data 4-54
Plane
NAT: network address
translation
implementation: NAT router must:

 outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port

#) of every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new
port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP
address, new port #) as destination addr
 remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP
address, port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #)
translation pair
 incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port
#) in dest fields of every incoming datagram with
corresponding (source IP address, port #) stored in NAT
table
Network Layer: Data 4-55
Plane
 NAT: network address
translation
NAT translation table 1: host 10.0.0.1
2: NAT router WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
source addr from 138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1, 3345 to …… ……
138.76.29.7, 5001,
updates table S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345
4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3 10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
3: reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more

examples: http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/kurose_ross/interactive/ Network Layer: Data 4-56
Plane
NAT: network address
translation
 16-bit port-number field:
• 60,000 simultaneous connections with a
single LAN-side address!
 NAT is controversial:
• routers should only process up to layer 3
• address shortage should be solved by
IPv6
• violates end-to-end argument
• NAT possibility must be taken into account
by app designers, e.g., P2P applications
• NAT traversal: what if client wants to
connect to server behind NAT?
Network Layer: Data 4-57
Plane
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 Overview of 4.4 Generalized
Network layer Forward and SDN
• data plane • match
• control plane • action
4.2 What’s inside a • OpenFlow
router examples of
4.3 IP: Internet Protocol match-plus-action
• datagram format in action
• fragmentation
• IPv4 addressing
• network address
translation
• IPv6
Network Layer: Data 4-58
Plane
 IPv6: motivation
 initial motivation: 32-bit address space
soon to be completely allocated.
 additional motivation:
• header format helps speed
processing/forwarding
• header changes to facilitate QoS

IPv6 datagram format:

• fixed-length 40 byte header
• no fragmentation allowed

Network Layer: Data 4-59

Plane
 IPv6 datagram format
riority: identify priority among datagrams in flow
ow Label: identify datagrams in same “flow.”
(concept of“flow” not well defined).
ext header: identify upper layer protocol for data
ver pri flow label
payload len next hdr hop limit
source address
(128 bits)
destination address
(128 bits)

data

32 bits
Network Layer: Data 4-60
Plane
Other changes from IPv4
 checksum: removed entirely to reduce
processing time at each hop
 options: allowed, but outside of header,
indicated by “Next Header” field
 ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
• additional message types, e.g. “Packet Too
Big”
• multicast group management functions

Network Layer: Data 4-61

Plane
Transition from IPv4 to
IPv6
 not all routers can be upgraded
simultaneously
• no “flag days”
• how will network operate with mixed IPv4
and IPv6 routers?
 tunneling: IPv6 datagram carried as payload
in IPv4 datagram among IPv4 routers
IPv4 header fields IPv6 header fields
IPv4 payload
IPv4 source, dest addr IPv6 source dest addr
UDP/TCP payload

IPv6 datagram
IPv4 datagram
Network Layer: Data 4-62
Plane
Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

Network Layer: Data 4-63

Plane
Tunneling
A B IPv4 tunnel E F
connecting IPv6 routers
logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

flow: X src:B src:B flow: X

src: A dest: E src: A
dest: F
dest: E
dest: F
Flow: X Flow: X
Src: A Src: A
data Dest: F Dest: F data

data data

A-to-B: E-to-F:
IPv6 B-to-C: B-to-C: IPv6
IPv6 inside IPv6 inside
IPv4 IPv4 Network Layer: Data 4-64
Plane
IPv6:
adoption
 Google: 8% of clients access services via
IPv6
 NIST: 1/3 of all US government domains
are IPv6 capable

 Long (long!) time for deployment, use

•20 years and counting!
•think of application-level changes in last 20
years: WWW, Facebook, streaming media,
Skype, …
•Why?

Network Layer: Data 4-65

Plane
Chapter 4: outline
4.1 Overview of 4.4 Generalized
Network layer Forward and SDN
• data plane • match
• control plane • action
4.2 What’s inside a • OpenFlow
router examples of
4.3 IP: Internet Protocol match-plus-action
• datagram format in action
• fragmentation
• IPv4 addressing
• network address
translation
• IPv6
Network Layer: Data 4-66
Plane
Generalized Forwarding and
SDN
Each router contains a flow table that is
computed and distributed by a logically
centralized routing controller
logically-centralized routing controller

control plane

data plane
local flow table
headers counters actions

1
0100 1101

3 2
values in arriving
packet’s header
Network Layer: Data 4-67
Plane
OpenFlow data plane abstraction
 flow: defined by header fields
 generalized forwarding: simple packet-handling rules
• Pattern: match values in packet header fields
• Actions: for matched packet: drop, forward, modify, matched
packet or send matched packet to controller
• Priority: disambiguate overlapping patterns
• Counters: #bytes and #packets

Flow table in a router (computed and distributed by

controller) define router’s match+action rules
Network Layer: Data 4-68
Plane
OpenFlow data plane abstraction
 flow: defined by header fields
 generalized forwarding: simple packet-handling rules
• Pattern: match values in packet header fields
• Actions: for matched packet: drop, forward, modify, matched
packet or send matched packet to controller
• Priority: disambiguate overlapping patterns
• Counters: #bytes and #packets

* : wildcard
1. src=1.2.*.*, dest=3.4.5.*  drop
2. src = *.*.*.*, dest=3.4.*.*  forward(2)
3. src=10.1.2.3, dest=*.*.*.*  send to controller
OpenFlow: Flow Table
Entries
Rule Action Stats

Packet + byte counters

1. Forward packet to port(s)
2. Encapsulate and forward to controller
3. Drop packet
4. Send to normal processing pipeline
5. Modify Fields

Switch VLAN MAC MAC Eth IP IP IP TCP TCP

Port ID src dst type Src Dst Prot sport dport

Link layer Network layer Transport layer

 Example
s
Destination-based forwarding:
Switch MAC MAC Eth VLAN IP IP IP TCP TCP
Action
Port src dst type ID Src Dst Prot sport dport
* * * * * * 51.6.0.8 * * * port6
IP datagrams destined to IP address
51.6.0.8 should be forwarded to router
Firewall: output port 6

Switch MAC MAC Eth VLAN IP IP IP TCP TCP

Forward
Port src dst type ID Src Dst Prot sport dport
* * * * * * * * * 22 drop
do not forward (block) all datagrams destined to
TCP port 22

Switch MAC MAC Eth VLAN IP IP IP TCP TCP

Forward
Port src dst type ID Src Dst Prot sport dport
* * * * drop
not* forward (block) * * * *
128.119.1.1
do all datagrams sent by
host 128.119.1.1
 Example
s
Destination-based layer 2 (switch) forwarding:
Switch MAC MAC Eth VLAN IP IP IP TCP TCP
Action
Port src dst type ID Src Dst Prot sport dport
22:A7:23:
* 11:E1:02 * * * * * * * * port3
layer 2 frames from MAC address
22:A7:23:11:E1:02 should be forwarded
to output port 6

Network Layer: Data 4-72

Plane
OpenFlow abstraction
 match+action: unifies different kinds of devices
 Router  Firewall
• match: longest • match: IP addresses
destination IP prefix and TCP/UDP port
• action: forward out numbers
a link • action: permit or
 Switch deny
• match: destination  NAT
MAC address • match: IP address
• action: forward or and port
flood • action: rewrite
address and port

Network Layer: Data 4-73

Plane
OpenFlow example Example: datagrams from
hosts h5 and h6 should
be sent to h3 or h4, via s1
match action and from there to s2
IP Src = 10.3.*.* Host h6
forward(3)
IP Dst = 10.2.*.* 10.3.0.6
1 s3 controller
2

3 4
Host h5
10.3.0.5

1 s1 1 s2
2 Host h4
4 2 4
Host h1 10.2.0.4
3 3
10.1.0.1
Host h2
10.1.0.2 match action
match action Host h3
ingress port = 2
10.2.0.3 forward(3)
ingress port = 1 IP Dst = 10.2.0.3
IP Src = 10.3.*.* forward(4) ingress port = 2
forward(4)
IP Dst = 10.2.*.* IP Dst = 10.2.0.4
Chapter 4: done!
4.1 Overview of 4.4 Generalized
Network layer: data Forward and SDN
plane and control • match plus action
plane • OpenFlow example
4.2 What’s inside a
router
4.3 IP: Internet Protocol
Question: how do forwarding tables
• datagram format (destination-based forwarding) or
• fragmentation flow tables (generalized forwarding)
computed?
• IPv4 addressing Answer: by the control plane (next
• NAT chapter)
• IPv6

Network Layer: Data 4-75

Plane