Optical Fiber Communication

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 Silica Optical Fibers
Core and cladding made from silica glass which is almost transparent in
visible and near-IR. In the case that the refractive index changes in a step
between the core and the cladding, this structure is known as step index
fiber. Higher core refractive index (0.3% higher) is typically achieved by
doping the silica core with germanium dioxide (GeO2).
A protective coating of one or two layers of cushioning material (such as
acrylate) is used to reduce cross talk between adjacent fibers and the
loss-increasing micro bending that occurs when fibers are pressed against
rough surfaces.
For greater environmental protection, fibers are commonly incorporated
into cables. Typical cables have a polyethylene sheath that encases the
fiber within a strength membrane such as steel.

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 Step-index Silica Optical Fiber Cross-
section

Both fiber types can have the same numerical aperture (NA), because
NA is independent of the core diameter.

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Light Ray Guiding Condition

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 Light Ray Guiding Condition
through Optical Fiber

 Denser medium and light medium

 Refractive index
 Critical angle
 Total internal reflection

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Light Ray Guiding Condition

See the reference Pdf

Snell’s law, critical angle
See the equation [

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 Light Ray Guiding Condition

Light ray that satisfies total internal reflection at the interface of the
higher refractive index core and the lower refractive index cladding can be
guided along an optical fiber.
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Acceptance Angle
Acceptance Cone

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 Acceptance Angle

Only rays with a sufficiently shallow grazing angle (with an angle to the
normal greater than θc) at the core-cladding interface are transmitted by
total internal reflection. Ray A incident at the critical angle θc at the core-
cladding interface enters the fiber core at an angle θa to the fiber axis and
is refracted at the air-core interface. 10
Acceptance Angle

11
 Acceptance Angle

𝑛𝑎

Light rays will be confined inside the fiber core if it is input-coupled at

the fiber core end-face within the acceptance angle θa.
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Acceptance Cone

Acceptance cone=

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Numerical Aperture (NA)

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Numerical Aperture (NA)

[
[

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 Numerical Aperture (NA)

The Numerical Aperture (NA) of a fiber is defined as the sine of the largest
angle an incident ray can have for total internal reflectance in the core.
Rays launched outside the angle specified by a fiber’s NA will excite
radiation modes of the fiber. A higher core index, with respect to the
cladding, means larger NA.
However, increasing NA causes higher scattering loss from greater
concentrations of dopant.
Qualitatively, NA is a measure of the light gathering ability of a fiber. It
also indicates how easy it is to couple light into a fiber.
Silica fibers for long haul transmission, NA designed to have the range
between 0.1 to 0.3. For short haul communication plastic fibers are used.
NA designed to have the range between 0.4 to 0.5.

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Numerical Aperture (NA) Home Work

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 Relative Refractive Index ()
Sometimes another parameter is referred to as index difference and as
the fractional index difference.
Hence also approximates to the fractional index difference. So for
[From the formula of =]
So NA=

Explanation: For single-mode fiber (core diameter 8 µm), the difference

between n1 and n2 is very small (not more than 1 percent). Use Δ=(n1−n2)/n1 to
define a normalized index difference between core and cladding, then Δ must
also be very small (Δ ≪ 1). In this case, the expression of numerical aperture
can be simplified as NA≈n1(2Δ)1/2. In most cases fibers are placed in air
and n0=1. sinθa≈θa is valid when sinθa≪1 (SMF); therefore, Equation
n0sinθa ≤ (n1 2−n2 2)1/2 reduces to θa≤n1 (2Δ) 1/2=NA

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19
Book ref: OF Communication
John M. Senior
Chapter 2
pp. 14-19

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Fiber Classification
 Fiber Classification

There are two methods to classify fiber optic cables.

1. Index of refraction variation across the cable cross

section.
2. Various paths light rays take to pass through the cable.

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 Fiber Classification

In Single mode light takes single path

through the fiber core. Step index means
sharp step in the index of refraction
between core and cladding interface.

This indicates that in step index, core and

cladding have their own constant index of
refractions N1 and N2 respectively.

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 Fiber Classification

In multimode light follows multiple paths

through the fiber core.
In graded index, index of refraction is not
constant but vary smoothly across the
diameter of the core. Index of refraction is
increasing as one goes near the center
while decreasing near outer core edges.
Index of refraction is maximum at the
center of the core. Index of refraction is
constant for cladding part of the fiber.

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 Fiber Classification

Based on above, there are three types of fiber optic cable.

• multimode step index
• single mode step index
• multimode graded index

multimode step index fiber cable is widely used due to benefits

of large size. It is easier to make and hence less expensive. It is
used for shorter distances at very low pulse frequencies.

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 MM Step Index Fiber
Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometers) such fiber
is called multi-mode fiber.
In a step-index multi-mode fiber, rays of light are guided along the fiber
core by total internal reflection. Rays that meet the core-cladding
boundary at a high angle greater than the critical angle for this
boundary, are completely reflected.
The critical angle is determined by the difference in index of refraction
between the core and cladding materials. The critical angle determines
the acceptance angle of the fiber, often reported as a numerical
aperture.

• In step index fiber rays have different path lengths and therefore take
different times to traverse the fiber.

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MM Step Index Fiber

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 MM Graded Index Fiber

In graded-index fiber, the index of refraction in the core decreases

continuously between the axis and the cladding. This causes light rays
to bend smoothly as they approach the cladding, rather than reflecting
abruptly from the core-cladding boundary. The resulting curved paths
reduce multi-path dispersion because high angle rays pass more
through the lower-index periphery of the core, rather than the high-
index center.
This index profile is chosen to minimize the difference in axial
propagation speeds of the various rays in the fiber. The ideal index
profile is very close to a parabolic relationship between the index and
the distance from the axis.

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MM Graded Index Fiber

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 Single mode Step Index Fiber

Fiber supporting only one mode is called single-mode or mono-

mode fiber. The most common type of single-mode fiber has a
core diameter of 8–10 micrometers and is designed for use in
the ”near infrared”.
Multi-mode fiber, by comparison, is manufactured with core
diameters as small as 50 micrometers and as large as hundreds
of micrometers.

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Single Mode Step Index Fiber

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32
Pulse Shape for Different Fibers

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Normalized Frequency/ V Number
Cutoff Wavelength

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 Normalized Frequency
V Number
There are a few factors that contribute to the type of mode propagation
through a fiber. These factors ultimately make up the fiber’s V-number
that determines which modes propagate in a fiber. These factors
include: indices of refraction of core and cladding, core diameter, and
wavelength.
Thus, the factor fiber manufacturers use to control the type of modes a
fiber propagates is the core diameter.

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 Normalized Frequency
V Number
The Normalized Frequency Parameter of a fiber, also called the V
number, is a useful specification. Many fiber parameters can be
expressed in terms of V, such as: the number of modes at a given
wavelength, mode cut off conditions, and propagation constants.
For example, The total number of guided modes M for a step-indexed
multimode fiber is approximately related to the V number is given by:
M~ V2/2,
and a step index fiber becomes single-mode for a given wavelength
when V<2.405.
Mathematically:
V = 2π.a/λ. NA
= 2πa/λ·(n12 – n22)1/2
= 2πa/λ.n1 (2∆)1/2
Where, a is the fiber core radius. 36
b vs. V graph for Various LP Modes
Normalized Frequency
V Number

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 Single Mode Condition
For single mode operation, only fundamental LP01 mode exists. The
cutoff normalized frequency (Vc) for the next higher order (LP11) mode
in step index fibers occurs at Vc=2.405.

Single mode propagation of the LP01 mode in step index fibers:

V<2.405 or V<Vc .
 Normalized Frequency/
V Number Declares Single Mode &
Multi Mode Fiber
Single mode (SM) fibers have much smaller core diameters than Multi-
Mode (MM) fibers. SM fiber is actually designed to propagate only a single
(fundamental) mode from a light source. MM fiber allows higher order
modes to propagate from a light source. Each SM fiber has a cut-off
wavelength associated with it. The cut-off wavelength is the benchmark
where every lower wavelength will propagate high order modes and thus
be considered multi-mode at those wavelengths. SM fiber is used to
propagate LP01. MM fiber is typically used when beam shape and quality is
not a desirable factor. MM fibers in turn have large NAs while SM mode
fibers have smaller NAs.

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 Cutoff Wavelength
Cutoff Wavelength:
λc = 2πa/Vc .(n12 – n22)1/2 = 2πa/Vc.n1 (2∆)1/2
a is the fiber core radius
λc is the cutoff wavelength
Vc is the cutoff V number, equals 2.405.

The cutoff wavelength is the minimum wavelength in which a particular fiber

still acts as a single mode fiber. Above the cutoff wavelength, the fiber will
only allow the LP01 mode to propagate through the fiber (fiber is a single mode
fiber at this wavelength). Below the cutoff wavelength, higher order modes,
i.e. LP11, LP21, LP02, etc will be able to propagate (fiber becomes a multimode
fiber at this wavelength).

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Homework
Example