CHAPTER 5

Superstruct
ure
1-Deck and overpass 2- Stringer(longitudinal beams) 3-Bearing
4- Pedestal 5-Footing 6- Piles 7-Underpass 8- Embankment
9- Live load

10
9
Approach Expansion
slab Joint
Railing Post
Wing
wall

Abutment
Pier

Girder

Diaphragm
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Bridge Superstructure
⚫ Bridge superstructures
consist of structural and
nonstructural components
⚫ Structural Components:
⚫ Girder (the big beam)
⚫ Roadway Deck (slab)
⚫ Floor Beam
⚫ Stringer
⚫ Diaphragm
⚫ Nonstructural
Components:
⚫ Asphalt Surface
⚫ Traffic Barriers
⚫ Railings 2

⚫ Signs, Lighting, Drainage

 Bridge Superstructure – Girder Bridge
⚫ For girder
bridges, all
girders rest on
the pier – Thus,
they all resist the
load (almost)
equally
⚫ The slabs rest on
the top of the
girder
⚫ Diaphragms are
used to prevent
girders from
bending out of 3

plane and to
 Reinforced Concrete Bridges:
RC bridges possess several advantages
over steel bridges.
- adaptability of concrete wide variety of
structural shapes
- Low maintenance cost
-Long life and better resistance to temporary
overloads and dynamic loads than steel bridges.
-Cast-in-place reinforced concrete
structures are continuous and monolithic,
which translate into easy construction, low
cost and good seismic resistance.
-They can also be given the desired aesthetic
 RC Bridges . . .
Disadvantages
⚫ - large dead weight
⚫ - difficulty to widen
⚫ - longer construction time
⚫ - requires formwork and false
work
 Advantages of Continuous RC Bridges:
⚫ Less number of bearings than simply
supported bridge since one line of bearings
is used over the piers
⚫ Reduced width of pier, thus less flow
obstruction and less amount of material
⚫ Requires less number of expansion joints
due to which both the initial cost and
maintenance cost become less. The
rigidity quality over the bridge is thus
improved.
 Advantages of Continuous RC Bridges . . .
⚫ Lesser depth of girder, hence economical
supports
⚫ Better architectural appearance
⚫ Lesser vibration and deflection

Disadvantages
⚫ Analysis is laborious and time consuming
⚫ Not suitable on yielding foundations
 Steel Bridges
Steel bridge construction consists of
rolled steel beams, plate girders or
trusses with reinforced concrete deck
or steel plate deck-beam bridges.

Steel has got several

advantages
⚫ It is a high quality, homogeneous, isotropic
material that is perfectly elastic to its yield
point.
⚫ It has high tensile and compressive
strengths.
 Steel Bridges
Advantages ….
⚫ Faster construction time
⚫ They can be erected with ease
and this minimizing construction
costs.
⚫ Steel superstructures are usually
lighter than concrete superstructures
which translate into reduced
substructures costs
 Steel Bridges
Some of the disadvantages
are:
⚫ Corrosion of steel
⚫ high maintenance cost
⚫ Corrosion can reduce cross
section of structural members
and weaken the superstructure
also.
 Arch Bridges
⚫ Arches are generally characterized
by the development of inclined
rather than vertical reactions under
vertical loads.

⚫ Cross-sections are designed for

thrust, moment and shear, with
magnitudes depending on the
location of the pressure line.
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Types of Slab Reinforcement
⚫ The deck slab may be
designed as One-Way
Slab with main
reinforcement
perpendicular or
parallel to the traffic
direction
⚫ Main
reinforcement
perpendicular to
traffic
⚫ Found in girder
bridges
⚫ Slab on floor 8
⚫ Girder
beams Spacing must
not be too large
 Materials: Concrete
⚫ Minimum compressive strength, f’c = 28 MPa
at 28 days (tested on 150 x 300 mm standard
cylinders)
⚫ Two classes of concrete specified:
⚫ Class A (generally used for all structural
elements)
⚫ Class AE (air-entrained, suitable for
freeze/thaw cycles, exposure to deicing salts
and saltwater)
⚫ Water-Cement Ratio (W/C) should not exceed 0.49
for Class A (for both classes)
⚫ Modulus of elasticity, Ec (for concrete unit weight
γc 16

between 1440-2500 kg/m3)

Materials: Reinforcing Steel
⚫ In general,
reinforcing bars shall
be deformed (except
wires used for spirals,
hoops and wire fabric).
⚫ Modulus of
elasticity, Es =
200,000 MPa
⚫ Minimum Yield
strength 420 MPa
(can be less with
approval of the
Owner)
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⚫ Maximum Yield
strengths 520 MPa
Minimum Slab Thickness
⚫ Absolute Minimum Thickness = 175 mm
(9.7.1.1)
⚫ Traditionally, the minimum thickness was
specified in AASHTO Standard Specification
for the purpose of deflection control
⚫ However, AASHTO LRFD removes all the
requirements for maximum deflection and
leaves it to the judgment of the designer.
Therefore, the thickness of slab for deflection
control is now optional. (2.5.2.6.3)

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 Slab Span “S”
⚫ Slab span (s) is determined from
⚫ Face-to-Face distance for slab monolithic with
beam (i.e. cast into one piece)

• For composite slab on steel or concrete girder, the distance

between the face of the webs

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 Minimum Cover of Reinforcement
⚫ The clear cover is the
distance from the top
or bottom of the e
section to th outer
edge of steel
reinforcement (not at
the center!)
⚫ Minimum cover is
specified so that there
is enough concrete to
cover the steel and
prevent the steel from
corrosion
⚫ A large covering is 20

required in corrosive
 Minimum Cover
⚫ Minimum clear cover for reinforcing
steel and prestressing steel (5.12.3)
⚫ Adjustments for Water-Cement Ratio:
⚫ For W/C < 0.4, the concrete tends to be
dense; therefore can use only 80% of the
value in the table (i.e. multiply by 0.8)
⚫ For W/C > 0.5, the concrete tends to be
porous; the value in the table must be
increase by 20% (i.e. multiply by 1.2)
⚫ If there is no initial overlay of wearing
surface, should add another 10 mm to the
clear cover on the top surface to allows
for some wear and tear 21
Minimum Cover

22
Analysis and Design Methods
⚫ Methods for designing slab
⚫ Empirical Method (9.7.2)
⚫ Approximate Method (Strip Method)
(4.6.2.1)
⚫ Refined Method including
⚫ Classical force and displacement methods
⚫ Yield Line Method
⚫ Finite Element Analysis

23
 Strip Method
⚫ Strip Method
⚫ Analysis for Moment and shear
⚫ Strip Widths
⚫ Slab Design for Primary
Reinforcement
⚫ Secondary Reinforcement
⚫ Temperature and Shrinkage
Reinforcement

24
 Strip width for girder bridge
⚫ Strip method is an approximate analysis
method in which the deck is subdivided into
strips perpendicular to the supporting
components (girder)

⚫ The slab strip is now a continuous beam and

can be analyzed using classical beam theory
and designed as a one-way slab

20
 Strip Method - Procedures
⚫ Slab is modeled as beams and with girders as
supports
⚫ Wheel loads are placed (transversely) on
this slab to produced the maximum effect
⚫ Determine the maximum moment (M+ and M-)
based on classical beam theory
⚫ Determine the width of strip for each M+ and
M- case
⚫ Divide the maximum moment by the width of
strip to get the moment per 1 unit width of slab
⚫ Design an RC slab for this moment – the
reinforcement required will be for 1 unit
width of slab (this
as a percentage of is for the
those primary
in the direction)
primary 21

⚫ direction
The reinforcement in the secondary direction
Strip Method – Width of Strip-Girder Bridge

⚫ S = spacing of supporting components

(FT)
⚫ X = distance from load to point of
support (FT) 22

⚫ +M = positive moment
 Strip Method – Width of Strip
⚫ We can obtain the width of equivalent interior strips
from the table, which depends on the direction of
slab relative to traffic (parallel or perpendicular)
⚫ When deck span is perpendicular to traffic, there is
no limit on strip width
⚫ When deck span is parallel to traffic, strip width
must be less than 3600 mm (that’s the design
lane width!) (if it is greater, then another
provision applies, see 4.6.2.3)
⚫ The strips should be analyzed by classical beam
theory. The moment obtained is divided by the strip
width to get moment per unit width

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 Strip Method – Analysis for Moments
⚫ Deck slab is designed for maximum positive and
negative bending moments

⚫ These moments are considered as

representative and may be used for all panels.

⚫ Need to consider LL placement to get the

maximum effect

⚫ Primary reinforcement is calculated using these

moments
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 1. SLAB BRIDGES
⚫ Slab Bridge normally requires more
concrete and reinforced steel than Girder
Bridge of the same span but the formwork is
simpler and less expressive, hence they are
economical when these cast factor balance
favourably.
⚫ Slab bridges are most commonly used to
span short spans up to 12 meters.
 SLAB BRIDGES
It is the most common forms of
bridges in Ethiopia, and
⚫ economical
6 m to 15 mfor spans:
[ERA] (and if
>15m they can be ribbed)
⚫ 6-12m [AACRA]

⚫ 10-12m [AASHTO]
 Optional Criteria for Span-to-Depth Ratios

⚫ Unless otherwise specified herein,

if an Owner chooses to invoke
controls on span- to-depth ratios, the
limits in Table 2.5.2.6.3-1, in which S
is the slab span length and L is the
span length, both in ft., may
be considered in the absence of
other criteria. Where used, the
limits in Table 2.5.2.6.3-1 shall be
taken to apply to overall depth
unless noted.
12
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 SLAB BRIDGES
Depth
Determination:
⚫ According to AASHTO, Table
2.5.2.6.3.1, minimum recommended
depth for slab with main
reinforcement parallel to the traffic is :
1.2(S  3000) (mm)
D 30
where:
D : slab thickness
S : c/c spacing of the
bridge (mm)
 SLAB BRIDGES

Depth
⚫ Determination:
According to ERA Bridge Design
Manual 2013, article 5.4.1.1, the
depth of a concrete deck, excluding
any provision for grinding, grooving,
and sacrificial surface, should not be
less than 185 mm and minimum
cover should not be less than 35mm.
 Load distributions:
⚫ The equivalent width (E)of longitudinal strips
per lane for both shear and moment with one
lane, i.e., two lines of wheels, loaded shall be
determined as:
Interior Strip width
Edge Strip width
Edge strip is limited to half lane width; use multiple
presence factors 1.2 and half design lane load (for a
two-lane bridge, because the possibility of occurrence of
two trucks at a time is less).

Thus, live loads due to truck and tandem are divided by 2

as the width of the edge strip is less than 2.1m (wheel are
placed 300mm from curb edge and wheel spacing of
1800mm) plus curb width. Thus the effect of the live load
is reduced by half. Where:
 w
C  300  Ei 
Ee : Edge strip width
Ee  min 2  Cw : Curb width

 Ei : interior strip
1800mm width
Equivalent Concentrated and Distributed
Loads
The equivalent concentrated and distributed loads per
meter width of both interior and edge strips are obtained by
dividing the design loads to the corresponding strip width
and applying a dynamic impact factor. For the calculation of
live load force effects, influence line is used and the
maximum
Lane Load:effect will be selected for the design.
The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3kN/m
uniformly
distributed in the longitudinal direction.
IL for maximum shear force due to truck and tandem loads
 ll l2 l1  4.3 (L 1.2)
m1  1L 2 m2  m1  m2
L 4

l1 l2 
m3  L
4.3
IL for maximum bending moment due to truck and tandem loads
 M tr 145
 E  m1  m2   E3 5 m3

M 110
tan  E  m1
 m 2


M ln
 9.3 L 2


(M L L  I M )int E 1.33max
8 Mtr , Mtan   Mln
Thus, the design moment is taking by considering the maximum
effects due to live and dead load moments.
Design Moment
The design moment is computed by combining the
effects of dead loads and live loads and applying
the corresponding load combinations and load factors
specified in AASHTO, Table 3.4.1.1.

For strength limit state ƞ=1.05- for critical or

essential bridges.
 Distribution
Reinforcement
According to AASHTO, article 5.14.4.1, the amount
of bottom transverse reinforcement may be taken
as a percentage of the main reinforcement required
for positive moment.

Shrinkage & Temperature Reinforcement

As indicated in AASHTO, section 5.10.8,

reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature
reinforcement shall be provided near surfaces of
concrete exposed to daily temperature changes.
The specified amount of the steel should be
distributed equally on both sides.
T-girder Bridges:
 T-Girder Bridges:
⚫ T- Girders are used for bridges spanning
from about 10 meters-25 meters.
⚫ These usually consist of equally spaced
beams (generally with spacing of
1.8-3.6m) spanning longitudinally
between supports.
⚫ The slab is structurally continuous across
the top.
⚫ The slab serves dual purpose of supporting
the live load on the bridge and acting as
the top flange of the longitudinal beams.
 T-Girder Bridges
They shall be used for span
lengths
10 – 25 m [ERA]
 10 – 20 m [Design of RC
Bridge]
 10-25m [AASHTO]
 12-18m [Bridge Eng’g
Handbook].
14
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 T-Girder Bridges . . .
Diaphragms
⚫ Diaphragms are provided transversely
between the beams over the supports and
depending on the span, at mid-span and other
intermediate locations.
⚫ The purpose of providing diaphragms is
to ensure lateral distribution of live loads
to various adjacent stringers,

Diaphragms
 T-Girder Bridges . . .
⚫ Design of T- girder bridges consists of

⚫ deck slab analysis and design, and

⚫ T-girder analysis and design.

⚫ Structural analysis of the deck slab

involves taking a continuous strip
perpendicular to the girders (AASHTO
Art.9.6.1) and analyzing by moment
distribution or using design aid given by
AASHTO.
 T-Girder Bridges . . .
Depth Determination:
Slab thickness
According to AASHTO, Table 2.5.2.6.3.1, minimum
recommended depth for continuous deck slab is

Top Flange thickness

According to AASHTO, article 5.14.1.5.1a, the
thickness of top flanges serving as deck slabs
shall be not less than the clear span between
fillets, haunches, or webs divided by 20, unless
transverse ribs at a spacing equal to the clear
span are used or transverse pre-stressing is
provided
 T-Girder Bridges . . .
Web thickness
⚫ The minimum web thickness shall be
determined by requirements for shear,
torsion, concrete cover and adequate field
placement and consolidation of concrete. As
per AASHTO, article C5.14.1.5.1C, the
minimum web thickness, bw (mm)is given by
⚫ The width of equivalent interior transverse strip
over which the wheel loads can be considered
distributed longitudinally in cast - in - place
concrete decks is given as [Table Art. 4.6.2.I .3-
1]
 Load Distribution Factors for the Girders:
For moment:
⚫ The live load flexural moment for interior and
exterior beams with concrete decks shall be
determined by applying the lane fractions

For shear:
⚫ The live load shear for interior and
exterior beams shall be determined by
applying the lane fractions
 Skewed Bridges
⚫ When the line supports are skewed
and the difference between skew
angles of two adjacent lines of
supports does not exceed 10 degrees,
the bending moment in the beams
may be reduced in accordance with
Table 4.6.2.2.2e-1.
Table 4.6.2.2.2e-1—Reduction of Load Distribution Factors for
Moment in Longitudinal Beams on Skewed Supports
 Box Girder Bridge . . .
⚫ Concrete box girder bridges are
economical for spans of above 25 to
45m.
⚫ They can be reinforced concrete or
prestressed concrete.
⚫ Longer span than 45m will
have to be prestressed.
⚫ They are similar to T-beams in
configuration except the webs of T-
beams are all interconnected by a
common flange resulting in a cellular
 Box Girder Bridge . . .
⚫ The top slab, webs and bottom slab
are built monolithically to act as a
unit, which means that full shear
transfer must be provided between all
parts of the section.

⚫ Reinforced concrete box girders

have high torsional resistance due to
their closed shape and are particularly
suitable for structures with significant
curvature.
 Box Girder Bridge . . .
Concrete box girder bridges have several
advantages over other types;
⚫ The relatively shallow depth of box girders
is all advantage where headroom is limited
like in urban overpasses.
⚫ Monolithic construction of the
superstructure and substructure offers
structural as well as aesthetic advantage.
 Box Girder Bridge . . .
⚫ They provide space for utilities such as water
and gas lines, power, telephone and cable ducts,
storm drains and sewers, which can be placed in
the hollow cellular section.
⚫ When the exterior webs are inclined their
slope should preferably be IH: 2V.
 Box Girder Bridge . . .

Interior Exterior
Girder Girder
 Box Girder Bridge . . .
Bottom Flange thickness
For Box-girder bridge, as specified in
AASHTO, article 5.14.1.5.1b, the bottom flange
thickness shall be not less than:
⚫ 140mm;
⚫ the distance between fillets or webs of non
prestressed girders
and beams divided by 16; or
⚫ the clear span between fillets, haunches, or webs
for prestressed girders divided by 30, unless
transverse ribs at a spacing equal to the clear
span are used.
 Box Girder Bridge . . .
Bottom Flange Reinforcement
According to ERA Bridge design manual, article
5.5.2.4, a uniformly distributed reinforcement of
0.4 percent of the flange area shall be placed in
the bottom slab parallel to the girder span,
either in single or double layers. The spacing
of such reinforcement shall not exceed 450mm.

A uniformly distributed reinforcement of 0.5

percent of the cross-sectional area of the slab,
based on the least slab thickness, shall be placed
in the bottom slab transverse to the girder span.
Such reinforcement shall be distributed over
both surfaces with a maximum spacing of