FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN Chapter 4

Analysis and Design of RC Bridges

SPECIFICATIONS FROM ERA BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

SLAB BRIDGES
Single span slab bridges are perhaps the most common bridges in Ethiopia. They can be economical for
spans from 1 m to 18 m. Above 15 m they should preferably be ribbed as shown in figure below. Instead
of ribs there are several types of prefab forms that can be used by contractors, if the designer has
considered that particular type.

SLAB
VOIDED SLAB

RIBBED SLAB

Sections of Voided (Hollowed) Slab and Ribbed Slab Bridge Decks

Normally the slab is made with a uniform depth over the whole bridge. The required design depth is
usually 5.5 - 6 % of the span length, due to the width of the cracks. If stressed reinforced concrete is used,
the design depth shall be reduced to 4.5 % of the span length.
The abutments at single or double span slab bridges should preferably be placed perpendicular to the
bridge in order to avoid a skew in earth pressure, which may cause skew in the abutment front wall.

GIRDER BRIDGES
A girder bridge is usually used for a single span bridge, or non-continuous girders for a multi-span bridge,
in earthquake areas. They shall be used for span lengths between 12 - 20 m. Outside of earthquake zones,
continuous girder bridges are preferred. In this case the exterior span length should be approximately 0.8
times the interior span. The LRFD design method usually minimizes materials used if the number of
girders/beams is minimized. The cantilever should preferably not exceed 40 % of the spacing of the girders,
or 2.8 m for a two-lane bridge.
The design depth of a normal girder bridge may vary between 7-10% of the span length depending on the
number of beams used. If possible, a high stem of beam is preferred to a certain extent, both technically
and economically. For construction reasons however, the height should be minimized. Esthetically a short
bridge with a high superstructure close to the water surface should be avoided. Here a slender structure
(slab) is more appealing.

Spacing of Reinforcement

Minimum Spacing of Reinforcing Bars

Cast-in-Place Concrete
For cast-in-place concrete, the clear distance between parallel bars in a layer shall not be less than:
 1.5 times the nominal diameter of the bars,
 1.5 times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, or * 38 mm.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN Chapter 4
Analysis and Design of RC Bridges
Precast Concrete
For precast concrete manufactured under plant control conditions, the clear distance between parallel
bars in a layer shall not be less than:
 The nominal diameter of the bars,
 1.3 times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, or
 25 mm.

Multi-Layers
Except in decks where parallel reinforcing is placed in two or more layers, with clear distance between
layers not exceeding 150 mm, the bars in the upper layers shall be placed directly above those in the
bottom layer, and the clear distance between layers shall not be less than 25 mm or the nominal diameter
of the bars.

CONCRETE
Recommended grade of concrete and corresponding specified strengths are shown in Table 9-1 for both
cylinder and cube strengths. Classes of concrete corresponding to these grades are shown in Table 9-2.

Grades of Concrete C25 C30 C40 C50 C60

Fck (150 mm cylinders, MPa) 20 24 32 40 48
fck (200 mm cubes, MPa) 21 25 34 42 50
fck (150 mm cubes, MPa) 25 30 40 50 60

Table 9-1 Grades of Concrete and Characteristic Cylinder and Cube Compressive Strength, fck

Class Permissible Grades of Concrete

I (C20) C25 C30 C40 C50 C60
II (C20) - - - - -

Table 9-2 Grades and Classes of Concrete

Class I concrete is generally used for all elements of structures, except when another class is more
appropriate, and specifically for concrete exposed to saltwater. Class II concrete is used in footings,
pedestals, massive pier shafts, and gravity walls.

Concrete strengths above 50 MPa (150 mm cylinders) shall be used only when physical tests are made to
establish the relationships between the concrete strength and other properties. Concrete with strengths
below 20 MPa at 28 days (150 mm cylinders) should not be used in structural applications.
The specified compressive strength for prestressed concrete shall not be less than 30 MPa.

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

The coefficient of thermal expansion should be determined by the laboratory tests on the specific mix to
be used. In the absence of more precise data, the thermal coefficient of expansion shall be taken as:
• for normal density concrete: 10.8 x 10-6/oC, and
• for low-density concrete: 9.0 x 10-6/oC
The thermal coefficient of normal density concrete can vary between 5.4 to 14.4 x 10-6/oC, with limestone
and marble aggregates producing the lower values, and chert and quartzite the higher.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN Chapter 4
Analysis and Design of RC Bridges
Design Properties (Modulus of Elasticity, Poisson's Ratio, Modulus of Rupture)
In the absence of more precise data, the modulus of elasticity, Ec, for concrete with densities between
1440 and 2500 kg/M3, shall be taken as:

Ec  0.043c1.5 fc (9.3)
where: c = density of concrete (kg/m )3

fc = specified cylinder strength of concrete (MPa)

For normal density concrete with c = 2 400 kg/m3 , Ec shall be taken as:
Ec  4800 fc (9.4)

Poisson's ratio shall be assumed as 0.2. For components which are expected to be subject to cracking, the
effect of Poisson's ratio shall be neglected.

The modulus of rupture (fr) in MPa, for normal density concrete, shall be taken as:

Fr  0.63 f ' c (9.5)

Characteristic Tensile Strength

The Characteristic Tensile Strength may be determined from the characteristic cylinder compressive
strength as:

fctk =0.7 fctm ; (9.6)

Where fctm =0.3 fck2/3 (see Table 9.3 below) (9.7)

Grades of Concrete C20 C25 C30 C40 C50 C60

fctm 1.9 2.2 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
fctk 1.3 1.5 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.8

Table 9-3 Grades of Concrete and Values of fctk and fctm

REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement shall be deformed, except that plain bars or plain wire may be used for spirals, hoops and
wire fabric. Bars < Ø 10 mm should not be used for cast-in-place structures.
The nominal yield strength shall be the minimum as specified for the grade of steel selected, except that
yield strengths in excess of 520 MPa shall not be used for design purposes. Bars with yield strengths less
than 270 MPa shall be used only with the approval of ERA. Tensile requirements are as indicated in Table
9-4.

AASHTO M31 M Grade Grade 300 Grade 420 Grade 520

Equiv. European bars B500B Ks60
(Old AASHTO M31 Grade) (40) (60) (75)
Tensile strength, min. MPa 500 620 690
Yield strength, min. Mpa 300 420 520

Table 9-4 Tensile Requirements for Reinforcement Bars

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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN Chapter 4
Analysis and Design of RC Bridges

Water/Cement Ratio 0,40 0,45 0,50

SITUATION COVER (mm) COVER (mm) COVER (mm)
Direct exposure to salt water 80 100 120
Cast against earth (i.e. Bottom of 60 75 90
footings)
Exterior other than above 40 50 60
Interior other than above (i.e. hollow
structures)
• Up to 35 Bar 32 40 48
• 45 and 55Bars 40 50 60
Bottom of cast-in-place slabs
• Up to 35 Bar 25 25 30
• 45 and 55Bars 40 50 60
Precast soffit form panels 20 20 24
Precast Reinforced Piles
• Non-corrosive environments 32 40 48
• Corrosive environments 60 75 90
Precast Prestressed Piles 40 50 60
Cast-in-place Piles
• Non-corrosive environments 40 50 60
• Corrosive environments
- General 60 75 90
- Protected 60 75 90
• Shells 40 50 60
• Auger cast, tremie concrete or slurry 60 75 90
construction

Table 9-5 Cover for Unprotected Main Reinforcing Steel (mm)

The modulus of elasticity, Ec, of bars and un-deformed wires shall be assumed as 200 000 MPa.
Minimum cover to main bars, including bars protected by epoxy coating, shall be 25 mm. Cover to ties
and stirrups shall be 12 mm less than the values specified in Table 9-5 for main bars, but shall not be less
than 25 mm.
Precast soffit form panels are not considered as main bars.
Concrete Cover for unprotected prestressing and reinforcing steel for the actual water-cement ratio shall
not be less than as specified in Table 9-5 above, unless otherwise specified herein. Concrete cover and
placing tolerances shall be shown in the contract documents and/or at the detail drawings.
Cover for pretensioned prestressing strand, anchorage hardware and mechanical connections for
reinforcing bars or post-tensioned prestressing strands shall be the same as for reinforcing steel.
Cover for metal ducts for post-tensioned tendons shall not be less than:
 that specified for main reinforcing steel,
 one-half the diameter of the duct, or
 that specified in Table 9-5.
Protective Coatings: Protection against chloride-induced corrosion shall be provided by epoxy coating or
galvanizing of reinforcing steel, post-tensioning duct and anchorage hardware and epoxy coating of
prestressing strand.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN Chapter 4
Analysis and Design of RC Bridges
Flexural Reinforcement
Except at supports of simple-spans and at the free ends of cantilevers, reinforcement shall be extended
beyond the point at which it is no longer required to resist flexure for a distance not less than:
 the effective depth of the member,
 15 times the nominal diameter of bar, or
 1/20 of the clear span.
Continuing reinforcement shall extend not less than the development length, ld, beyond the point where
bent or terminated tension reinforcement is no longer required to resist flexure.
No more than 50% of the reinforcement shall be terminated at any section, and adjacent bars shall not be
terminated in the same section.

Minimum Reinforcement
For components containing no prestressing steel, the minimum reinforcement provision herein shall be
considered satisfied if:

min  0.03 fc/ fy (9.13)

where: min = ratio of tension steel to gross area

fc = specified concrete strength (MPa)
fy = yield strength of tension steel (MPa)

In T-beams where the web is in tension, the determination of the actual mild steel ratio, , for comparison
with the requirement of Equation 9.13 shall be based on the width of the web.

Control of Cracking by Distribution of Reinforcement

Provisions specified, herein, are used for the distribution of tension reinforcement to control flexural
cracking in beams.
From the standpoint of appearance, many fine cracks are preferable to a few wide cracks. The best crack
control is obtained when the steel reinforcement is well distributed over the zone of maximum concrete
tension. Several bars at moderate spacing are more effective in controlling cracking than one or two larger
bars of equivalent area.
Components shall be so proportioned that the tensile stress in the mild steel reinforcement at the service
limit state, fs does not exceed:

fsa = Z  0.6 fy (9.14)

(dc A)1/3

where: dc = depth of concrete measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar or wire located
closest thereto; for calculation purposes, the thickness of clear cover used to compute dc shall
not be taken to be greater than 50 mm
A = area of concrete having the same centroid as the principal tensile reinforcement and
bounded by the surfaces of the cross-section and a straight line parallel to the neutral axis,
divided by the number of bars or wires (mm2); for calculation purposes, the thickness of clear
concrete cover used to compute A shall not be taken to be greater than 50 mm
Z = crack width parameter (N/mm)

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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN Chapter 4
Analysis and Design of RC Bridges
Except for cast-in-place reinforced concrete box culverts, the quantity Z in Equation 9.14 shall not exceed
30 kN/mm for members in moderate exposure conditions, 23 kN/mm for members in severe exposure
conditions, and 17.5 kN/mm for buried structures.

Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement

Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature stresses shall be provided near surfaces of concrete
exposed to daily temperature changes and in structural mass concrete. Temperature and shrinkage
reinforcement shall be added, so that the total reinforcement on exposed surfaces is not less than that
specified herein.
Components less than 1200 mm thick: Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature shall be in the form
of bars, welded wire fabric or prestressing tendons. For bars or welded wire fabric, the area of
reinforcement in each direction shall not be less than:

As  0.75 Ag/fy (9.17)

Where: Ag = gross area of section (mm2)

fy = Specified yield strength of reinforcing bars (MPa)

Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart than either 3.0 times the
component thickness or 450 mm.

Strength Limit State

Factored resistance shall be the product of nominal resistance, and the resistance factor in
Table 9-7 below:

Resistance Factors, Conventional Construction: Resistance factor :

 For flexure and tension of reinforced concrete ......................................... 0.90
 For flexure and tension of prestressed concrete........................................1.00
 For shear and torsion:
Normal density concrete.............................................................................0.90
Low-density concrete................................................................................... 0.70
 For axial compression with spirals or ties................................................... 0.75
 For bearing on concrete ............................................................................. 0.70
 For compression in strut-and-tie models ...................................................0.70
 For compression in anchorage zones:
Normal density concrete............................................................................0.80
Low-density concrete.................................................................................0.65
 For tension in steel in anchorage zones ....................................................1.00
 for resistance during pile driving................................................................ 1.00

Table 9-7 Resistance Factors

Distribution reinforcement for the Slab Bridges

Requirements for bottom distribution reinforcement in top slabs shall be placed in the secondary direction
in the bottom of slabs as a percentage of the primary reinforcement for positive moment. For primary
reinforcement parallel to the traffic:

1750 / s  50% (12.11)

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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN Chapter 4
Analysis and Design of RC Bridges
Where s = effective span length (mm).

For primary reinforcement perpendicular to traffic:

3840 / s  67%

Equivalent strip widths for slab bridge: The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear
and moment with one lane, i.e., two lines of wheels, loaded shall be determined as:

E  250  0.42 L1W1 (12.40)

(the strip width has been divided by 1.20 to account for the multiple presence effect).

The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with more than one lane
loaded shall be determined as:

W
E  2100  0.12 L1W1  (12.41)
NL
Where: E = equivalent width (mm)
L1 = modified span length taken equal to the lesser of the actual span or 18 000 (mm)
W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken equal to the lesser of the actual width or 18
000 mm for multi-lane loading, or 9000 mm for single lane loading (mm)
W = physical edge-to-edge width of bridge (mm)
NL = number of design lanes as specified in section 3.8: Gravity Loads: Vehicular Live Load.

Equivalent strip width for overhang part of girder bridge:

E = 1140 + 0.833X
Where X=distance from load to point of support (mm)

Girders (Simple Span, Continuous, Box)

Some recommended dimensions for cast-in-place girders, box and T-beams are:
The thickness of top flanges serving as deck slab:
 same as for bridge decks
 not less than 5% of the clear span between fillets, haunches, or webs, unless transverse ribs at a
spacing equal to the clear span are used.

And for the bottom flange thickness not less than either:
 140 mm,
 1/16 of the distance between fillets or webs of non prestressed girders and beams, or
 1/30th of the clear span between fillets, haunches or webs for prestressed girders, unless transverse
ribs at a spacing equal to the clear span are used.

The thickness of webs shall be determined by requirements for shear, torsion, concrete cover and
placement of concrete. For adequate field placement and consolidation of concrete, usually a minimum
web thickness of 200 mm is needed for webs without prestressing ducts. For girders over about 2.4 m in
depth, the above dimensions should be increased to compensate for the increased difficulty of concrete
placement. Changes in girder web thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12.0 times the
difference in web thickness.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN Chapter 4
Analysis and Design of RC Bridges
Reinforcement for Cast-in-place Girder, Box and T-beams
The reinforcement in the deck slab of cast-in-place T-beams and box girders shall be determined by either
the traditional or by empirical design methods. Where the deck slab does not extend beyond the exterior
web, at least one-third of the bottom layer of the transverse reinforcement in the deck slab shall be
extended into the exterior face of the outside web and anchored by a standard 90  hook. If the slab
extends beyond the exterior web, at least one-third of the bottom layer of the transverse reinforcement
shall be extended into the slab overhang and shall have an anchorage beyond the exterior face of the web
not less in resistance than that provided by a standard hook.

Interior Beams with Concrete Decks: The live load flexural moment for interior beams with concrete decks
shall be determined by applying the lane fraction specified in Chapter 13: Approximate Methods of
Analysis. For preliminary design, the terms Kg/(L*ts3) and I/J shall be taken as 1.0.

Force Effect L (mm)

Positive Moment The length of the span for which
moment is being calculated
Negative Moment – Near interior supports of The average length of the two adjacent
continuous spans from point of contraflexure spans
to point of contraflexure under a uniform load
on all spans
Negative Moment – Other than near interior The length of the span for which
supports of continuous spans moment is being calculated
Shear The length of the span for which shear
is being calculated
Exterior Reaction The length of the exterior span
Interior Reaction of Continuous Span The average length of the two adjacent
spans

Table 13-2 “L” for Use in Live Load Distribution Factor Equations

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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN Chapter 4
Analysis and Design of RC Bridges

Figure 13-2 Common Deck Superstructures

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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN Chapter 4
Analysis and Design of RC Bridges
Type of Beams Applicable Distribution Factors Range of
Cross-section Applicability
from Figure
13-2

Concrete Deck on l One Design Lane Loaded: S/3700 S  1800

Wood Beams Two or More Design Lanes Loaded:
S/3000
Concrete Deck, Filled a, e, k and One Design Lane Loaded: 1100 S4900
Grid, or Partially Filled also i, j if 110  ts  300
Grid on Steel or sufficiently 0.06 + S 0.4 S 0.3 Kg 0.1 6000L73000
Concrete Beams; connected to 4300 L Lts3 Nb  4
Concrete T-Beams, act as a unit
T-and Double T- Two or More Design Lanes Loaded:
Sections
0.075 + S 0.6
S 0.2
Kg 0.1

4300 L Lts3

Use lesser of the values obtained from Nb = 3

the equation above with Nb = 3 or the
lever rule
Multicell Concrete Box d One Design Lane Loaded: 2100S4000
Beam 18 000  L 
1.75 + S 300 0.35 1 0.45 73000
1100 L Nc Nc  3
Two or More Design Lanes Loaded:
If Nc>8 use Nc=8
13 0.3 S 1 0.25
Nc 430 L

Steel Grids on Steel a One Design Lane Loaded: S  1800 mm

Beams S/2300 If tg < 100 mm
S/3050 If tg  100 mm
Two or More Design Lanes Loaded:
S/2400 If tg < 100 mm S  3200 mm
S/3050 If tg  100 mm

Table 13-3 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Moment in Interior Beam

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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN Chapter 4
Analysis and Design of RC Bridges

Type of Applicable Cross- One Design Two or More Range of

Superstructure section from Lane Loaded Design Lanes Applicability
Figure 13-2 Loaded
Wood Deck on Wood a, l Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
or Steel Beam
Concrete Deck on L Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Wood Beams
Concrete Deck, filled a, e, k and Lever Rule g = e ginterior -300  de  1700
Grid, or Partially Filled also i, j if
Grid on Steel or sufficiently e = 0.77 + de
Concrete Beams: connected to act as 2800
Concrete T-Beams. T a unit Use lesser of the Nb = 3
and Double T Sections values obtained
from the equation
above with Nb = 3
or the lever rule

Table 13-4 Distribution of Live Loads per Lane for Moment in Exterior Longitudinal Beams

Type of Applicable One Design Two or More Range of

Superstructure Cross-section Lane Loaded Design Lanes Applicability
from Figure Loaded
13-2
Concrete Deck on l Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Wood Beams
Concrete Deck, Filled a, e, k and 1100  S 4900
Grid, or Partially Filled also i, j if 0.36 + S 0.2 + S - S 2.0 6000  L  73000
Grid on Steel or sufficiently 7600 3600 10700 110  ts  300
Concrete Beams: connected to 4x109  kg  3x1012
Concrete T-Beams. T act as a unit Nb  4
and Double T Sections Lever Rule Lever Rule Nb = 3
Multi-cell Concrete d 1800  S  4900
Box Beams, Box S 0.6 d 0.1
S 0.9 d 0.1
6000  L  73000
Sections 2900 L 2200 L 890  d  2800
Nc  3

Table 13-7 Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Shear in Interior Beams

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FUNDAMENTALS OF BRIDGE DESIGN Chapter 4
Analysis and Design of RC Bridges

Type of Superstructure Applicable Cross- One Design Two or More Range of

section from Lane Design Lanes Applicability
Figure 13-2 Loaded Loaded
Wood Deck on Wood a, l Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
or steel Beams
Concrete Deck, Filled a, e, k and Lever Rule g = e ginterior -300  de  1700
Grid, or Partially Filled also i, j if
Grid on Steel or sufficiently  = 0.6 + de .
Concrete Beams; connected to act 3000
Concrete T-Beams, T- as a unit Lever Rule Nb = 3
and Double T-Beams
Multi-cell Concrete Box d Lever Rule g = e ginterior -600  de  1500
Beams, Box Sections
 = 0.64 + de .
3800
Steel Grid Deck on Steel a Lever Rule Lever Rule N/A
Beams

Table 13-8 - Distribution of Live Load Per Lane for Shear in Exterior Beams

Nb = number of beams or girders

ts = deck slab thickness (mm)
S = spacing of supporting components (mm)
L = span of beam (mm)

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