Remedial

Instructions
in English
SHEILOU MAE BORRES
TABUDLONG, MACDDS
Instructor
Course Description:
This three-unit course in Remedial
Instruction in English deals with the
strategies and methods of contemporary
English language teaching.
This is geared for English language
learners who are faced with difficulty in
competence in one or more domains. It also
attempts to provide actual remediation
through hands-on practice and various
situational case studies.
I. Orientation to Functional
Grammar
a. Parts of speech
b. Verbs & Tenses
c. Sentences Structures
Suggested Reading/Resources Materials
Theory and Problems of ENGLISH
GRAMMAR Third Edition by Eugene
Ehrlich
ACTIVITY
 Remedial
Instructions
in English
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson/session,
students will be able to:
• Identify the Remedial Classroom which
includes organization and
management.
• Determine general instructional
guidelines that should be considered.
 Warm Up
Motivation!
(Get ¼ sheet of paper)
Unit I.
The Remedial
Classroom:
Organization and
Management
A remedial program primarily helps
students address language skills
deficits by helping them acquire self-
confidence to face their own weakness
and overcome these through the
acquisition of self-help strategies.
A thorough assessment must be
conducted before organizing a remedial
program, while consistent monitoring is
Below are general instructional guidelines
that should be considered;
 Instruction is systematic when it is
planned, deliberate in application, and
proceeds in an orderly manner. This does
not mean a rigid progression of one-size-
fits-all teaching.
 Intensive instruction on any particular skill
or strategy should be based on need.
Thus, intensity will vary both with
individuals and groups.
 There is no substitute for ongoing
documentation and monitoring of learning
to determine the order in which skills
should be addressed and the level of
intensity required to help a child or group
of children succeed in a particular area.
 To track specific goals and objectives
within an integrated language-arts
framework, teachers must know the
instructional objectives their curriculum
requires at the grade or year level they
A. Organization
In organizing a remedial
program, one must
consider the
following
factors:
1. CURRICULUM
a. Base goals and standards for
language learning on theory and
research.
b. Relate teacher beliefs and
knowledge about instruction to
research.
c. Organize the curriculum
framework so that it is usable
2. INSTRUCTION
a. The program must identify instructional
strategies and activities for learners.
b. Instruction must be based upon what we
know about the effective teaching of
language skills.
c. Those involved in designing or selecting
instructional activities need to consider
the variables that contribute to success in
language learning, given its interactive and
constructive nature.
2. INSTRUCTION
e. Composing should be an integral part
of the program.
f. Students should be given opportunities
to become independent and to self-monitor
their progress.
g. The climate in a school must be
conducive to the development of students. h.
The school must develop an organizational
structure that meets individual needs of
students.
3. ASSESSMENT
a. Use assessment to guide
instruction.
b. Develop scoring guides and
rubrics.
c. Seek alignment among various
layers of assessment
B. Management
School-based remedial sessions tend to involve 3
to 10 learners, and typically last between 30 to
50 minutes, depending on whether they are in
the elementary or secondary level.
A plan to maximize the utilization of that time
should be a high priority. To ensure that the
program is effective, one must consider the six
components of an ideal remedial program (Manzo
& Manzo, 1993). These principles may also be
applicable in remediation for other skills aside
from reading.
1. The orientation component. The
orientation component provides continuity
and focus to the remedial session. It may be
an engaging question or statement related
to local or national news, or even school life.
It must focus on structured routines,
materials, equipment, venue, people
involved, and the objective of the program.
2. Direct Instruction Component. This is the
instructional heart of the remedial session. It
should never be traded away, even for one
3. Reinforcement and Extension Component.
This period of time ideally should build
on the direct instructional period and be
spent in empowered reading, writing, and
discussion of what was read. Writing activities
may vary from simply listing key words to
summarizing and reacting.
4. Schema-Enhancement Component. This
unit of time should be spent in building a
knowledge base for further reading and
independent thinking. It is an ideal time to
teach study skills such as outlining, note
5. Personal-Emotional Growth Development.
There is little learning or consequence
that can occur without the learner
involvement and anticipation of personal
progress.
6. Cognitive Development Component. This
component should contain an attempt to
enhance basic thinking operation such as:
inference, abstract verbal reasoning,
analogical reasoning, constructive-critical/
creative reading, convergent and divergent
 Remedial
Instructions
in English
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson/session,
students will be able to:
• Determine Remedial Instruction in
READING and its other special
features
• Correcting Perceptual and Decoding
Deficits in Word Recognition
Unit II
Remedial
Instruction in
READING
A. Correcting
Perceptual and
Decoding Deficits
in Word
Recognition
We can identify the student who has insufficient
competence in the visual analysis of words in two
ways. First, the student, when pronouncing
words verbally, selects inappropriate elements to
sound out and often he/she tries again and again
to use the same analysis even when it does not
work.
The second way can be done when the teacher
shows him/her the word covering up parts of it, if
the student is able to recognize it, then at least
one of his/her problems in word recognition is
B. Definition

of Terms
1. Alphabetic Knowledge: understanding
that letters represent sound so that words
may be read by saying the sounds
represented by the letters, and words may
be spelled by writing the letters that
represent the sounds in a word.
2. Sight-Word Knowledge: all words any
one reader can recognize instantly (with
automaticity) not necessarily with
meaning.
Alphabetic Knowledge
Examples:
Basic Sight Words
Examples
3. Basic Sight Words: a designated list
of words, usually of high utility.
4. Knowledge on Sound-Symbol
Correspondence: (a.k.a. graphophonic
knowledge) the readers’ ability to use
phonics, phonemic, and structural
analysis knowledge.
Phonics
The first sound of CAT is (say
together) / k / • Now the child repeats
for you to hear/check. together.
The middle sound of CAT is (say
together) / a / • Now the child repeats
for you to hear/check.
The END sound in CAT is / t / (tuh)
Listen, / t / • Now, let's say the end
sound of CAT together.
C. Correcting
Sight-Word
Knowledge
Deficit
1. Write a sentence on the chalkboard
with the new word used in context.
Underline the word.
2. Let students read the sentence and
attempt to say the new word using
context clues along with other word-
attack skills. If you are introducing a new
story, it is especially important that you
do not tell them each new word in
advance, as this deprives them of the
3. Discuss the meaning of the word or how
it is used in talking and writing. Try to tie
to something in their experience. If
possible, illustrate the word with a picture
or a concrete object.
4. Write the word as students watch. Ask
them to look for certain configuration
clues such as double letters, extenders,
and descenders. Also ask them to look for
any well-known phonograms or word
families, e.g. ill, ant, ake, but do not call
WARM UP!
(Get your Notebook)
SPELL OUT

WORDS
1. Inevitable - unavoidable
2. Vicious - cruel or dangerous
3. Chihuahua – kind of dogs
4. Colloquial – informal/ordinary
5. Amorphous - no shape
6. Fallacious – false or mistaken idea
7. Straighten – to make straight
8. Viscount - noblemen from Britain
9. Opaque – Not transparent, unable to seen through
10. Acquaintance – a person knowledge of something
11. Acquaintance- An acquaintance is someone
you know a little about, but they’re not your best
friend or anything. Acquaintance is also having
knowledge about something specific, like horror
films or the farming techniques of Chinese peasants.

American :/əˈkweɪntəns/
British: /əˈkweɪntɛns/
12. Camouflage
To camouflage is to disguise, and a
camouflage is that which disguises — like
the leaf-colored and patterned uniforms
worn by soldiers who want to blend in with
their natural surroundings.

American: /ˌkæməˈflɑ(d)ʒ/

British: /ˈkæməflɑʒ/
13. Chauvinism
 Chauvinism means the belief that your country is superior
to all others. If you traveled to China and complained about
everything that was unfamiliar and talked about how much
better things are back home, you'd be guilty of chauvinism.

 American: /ˌʃoʊvəˈnɪzəm/
 British: ˈʃəʊvɪnɪzəm/
The IPA
The International Phonetic Alphabet
(IPA) is a phonetic notation system
that is used to show how different
words are pronounced.
 Unlikemany standard alphabets where
one phonetic symbol can often represent
multiple sounds (e.g., the "o" in the words
"do," "no," and "not" are all pronounced
differently in English), the IPA has a one-
to-one correspondence between a speech
IPA symbols for American English
The following tables list the IPA symbols used for American English
words and pronunciations. Please note that although the IPA is based
on the Latin alphabet, the IPA contains some non-Latin characters as
well.
 Reminders:
 The tables above represent pronunciations of common phonemes in general
North American English. Speakers of some dialects may have different
sounds in certain words represented in the tables. For example, many
American speakers pronounce words with /ɑ/ and /ɔ/ (e.g., "cot" and
"caught") the same.

 In the IPA, a word's primary stress is marked by putting a raised vertical

line (ˈ) at the beginning of a syllable. Secondary stress is marked by putting
a lowered vertical line (ˌ) at the beginning of a syllable. For example, the
word "Tennessee" has primary stress on the last syllable and secondary
stress on the first syllable, so it is transcribed as /ˌtɛnəˈsi/.

 To help with readability, we use /r/ instead of the standard /ɹ/ in our
transcriptions to represent the voiced alveolar approximant found in
American English (i.e., the "r"-sound in a word like "ring").
D. Correcting
Basic Sight
Vocabulary
Deficit
1. Have the students trace the
word; write it on paper, or use chalk
or magic slates.
2. Have the students repeat the
word each time it is written.
3. Have the students write the word
without looking at the flash card;
then compare the two.
4. Create “study buddies.” Match learners
in the classroom with fellow students
who have mastered the words. Take time to
teach the “tutors” how to reinforce new
words. Provide a big reward to both tutor
and learner once the learner has attained
the goal.
5. Provide reinforcement games for
students to use on their own or with their
study buddies. Games may be open-ended
game boards or developed by levels
6. Provide charts, graphs, and other
devices for students to display their
progress. These serve as excellent
motivators, especially since students
are competing with themselves rather
than each other.
7. Use your imagination. Have students
dramatize phrases, build a sight-word
“cave,” practice words while lining up,
read sight-word “plays,” etc.
E.
Syllabication
1. When two consonants stand between two
vowels, the word is usually divided between
the consonants, e.g., dag-ger and cir-cus. In
some of the newer materials, materials are
divided after the double consonant, e.g., dagg-
er. It should be remembered that in reading we
are usually teaching syllabication as a means
of word attack. Therefore, we should also
accept a division after double consonants as
correct even though the dictionary would not
show it that way.
2. When one consonant stands between
two vowels, try dividing first so that the
consonant goes with the second vowels,
e,g., pa-per and motor, Students should be
taught that flexibility is required in using
this rule; if this does not give a word in the
student’s speaking-listening vocabulary,
then the student should divide it so that
the consonant goes with the first vowel, as
in riv-er and lev-er.
3. When a word ends in a consonant
and le, the consonant usually begins
the last syllable, e.g., ta-ble and hum-
ble.
4. Compound words are usually divided
between word parts and between
syllables in this parts, e.g., hen-house
and po-lice-man.
5. Prefixes and suffixes usually form
 Unit II, Lesson 2.
Remediation
through Phonemic
Awareness
The following are Critical Phonemic Awareness
skills students should learn
1. Sound Isolation.
Example: The first sound in sun is /ssss/. Example
Instruction: In sound isolation use conspicuous
strategies. a. Show students how to do all the
steps in the task before asking children to do the
task. Example: (Put down 2 pictures that begin
with different sounds and say the names of the
pictures.) "My turn to say the first sound in
man, /mmm/. Mmman begins with /mmm/.
Everyone, say the first sound in man, /mmm/."
Non-example: "Who can tell me the first sounds in
b. Use consistent and brief wording.
Example: "The first sound in Mmman is /mmm/.
Everyone say the first sound in man, /mmm/."
Non-example: "Man starts with the same sound as
the first sounds in mountain, mop, and Miranda.
Does anyone know other words that begin with the
same sound as man?"
c. Correct errors by telling the answer and asking
students to repeat the correct answer.
Example: "The first sound in Man is /mmm/. Say the
first sound in mmman with me, /mmm/. /Mmmm/."
Non-example: Asking the question again or asking
2. Blending (Example: /sss/ - / uuu/ - /nnn/
is sun). In blending instruction, use scaffold
task difficulty.
a. When students are first learning to blend,
use examples with continuous sounds,
because the sounds can be stretched and
held. Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes
to talk in a broken way. When he says /mmm/
- /ooo/ - /mmm/ he means mom." Non-
example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to talk
in a broken way. When he says /b/ - /e/ - /d/
b. When students are first learning the task,
use short words in teaching and practice
examples. Use pictures when possible.
Example: Put down 3 pictures of CVC words
and say: "My lion puppet wants one of these
pictures. Listen to hear which picture he
wants, /sss/ - /uuu/ - /nnn/. Which picture?"
Non-example: ".../p/ - /e/ - /n/ - /c/ - /i/ - /l/.
Which picture?" (This is a more advanced
model that should be used later.)
c. When students are first learning the
task, use materials that reduce memory
load and to represent sounds.
Example: Use pictures to help them
remember the words and to focus their
attention. Use a 3-square strip or blocks
to represent sounds in a word. Non-
example: Provide only verbal activities.
d. As students become successful during
initial learning, remove scaffolds by using
progressively more difficult examples. As
students become successful with more difficult
examples, use fewer scaffolds, such as
pictures. Example: Move from syllable or
onset-rime blending to blending with all
sounds in a word (phoneme blending). Remove
scaffolds, such as pictures. "Listen, /s/ - /t/ -
/o/ - /p/. Which picture?" "Listen, /s/ - /t/ - /o/
- /p/. What word?" Non-example: Provide
instruction and practice at only the easiest
3. Segmenting (Example: The sounds in sun are
/sss/ - /uuu/ - /nnn/) In phoneme
segmentation instruction, strategically integrate
familiar and new information.
a. Recycle instructional and practice examples
used for blending. Blending and segmenting are
sides of the same coin. The only difference is
whether students hear or produce a segmented
word. Note: A segmenting response is more
difficult for children to reproduce than a blending
response. Example: "Listen, my lion puppet likes to
say the sounds in words. The sounds in mom
are /mmm/ - /ooo/ - /mmm/. Say the sounds in mom
b. Concurrently teach letter-sound
correspondences for the sounds students
will be segmenting in words.
Example: Letter sound /s/ and words sun and
sit. Put down letter cards for familiar letter-
sounds. Then, have them place pictures by
the letter that begins with the same sound as
the picture. Non-example: Use letter-sounds
that have not been taught when teaching
first sound in pictures for phoneme isolation
activities.
Remedial Vocabulary Instruction
Vocabulary is initially acquired in four ways:
• Incidentally, through reading and
conversation
• Through direct instruction, as when a teacher
or auto-instructional program is used
intentionally build vocabulary power
• Through self-instruction, as when words are
looked up in a dictionary or their meaning are
sought from others in a conscious manner.
• Through mental manipulation while thinking,
1. Considerations in remedial vocabulary
instruction. Connect vocabulary instruction
to the natural processes of word learning.
The literature on vocabulary acquisition
tends to divide the teaching of vocabulary
into five phases. These are:
a. Disposition – opening the student’s mind
and will to engage new words.
b. Integration – establishing ties between the
meaning of a new word and the student’s
existing knowledge.
c. Repetition – provisions for practice
distributed over time, as well as
opportunities for frequent encounters with
the word in similar and differing contexts.
d. Interaction and meaningful use – social
situations conducive to using new words in
interactions with others and, thus, mentally
referencing new words in listening, reading,
writing, and speaking.
e. Self-instruction – maintaining an
2. Concept-Based Approach to Vocabulary Building
a. Identify the relevant and irrelevant features of
the concept in question.
b. Provide examples of the concept.
c. Provide examples of irrelevant but loosely
related concepts with which it might be compared.
d. Relate the concept by some possible smaller or
subordinating concepts.
e. Relate or categorize the concept by some
possible larger or subordinating concepts.
f. Relate or categorize the concept alongside equal
or coordinating terms.
3. Subjective Approach to Vocabulary (SAV)
a. Identify two to four words to be taught or
pre-taught if SAV is used as a pre-reading
activity. If a word list is used, be sure to
include as many words as possible that
impart concepts and feelings that you would
wish students to learn.
b. The teacher tells the student the full
meaning of a word, much as it might be
found in a dictionary. It is recorded in a Word
Study Journal as the “objective” or dictionary
c. The teacher asks the student, “What does this
word remind you of?” or “What do you picture or
think of when you hear this word?” Explain that
discussion of a personal association with a word
can be very helpful in remembering and clarifying
its meaning.
d. The teacher talks to the student through this
personal search for meaning by asking further
clarifying questions, and in group situations by
pointing out those images suggested that seem
most vivid. The teacher may add his or her own
images. Students are then directed to write some
“subjective” or personal associations for the new
c. The teacher asks the student, “What does this
word remind you of?” or “What do you picture or
think of when you hear this word?” Explain that
discussion of a personal association with a word
can be very helpful in remembering and clarifying
its meaning.
d. The teacher talks to the student through this
personal search for meaning by asking further
clarifying questions, and in group situations by
pointing out those images suggested that seem
most vivid. The teacher may add his or her own
images. Students are then directed to write some
“subjective” or personal associations for the new
e. Silent reading follows next when SAV is used as
pre-reading vocabulary development. When it is
being used for general vocabulary development,
students are given 5 to 10 minutes to study and
rehearse the new and previously recorded words.
f. The teacher let the student close the Word Study
Journal and asks him/her the meanings of the
words studied that day and a few others from
previous days. This step can be tied to seat
exercises in conventional workbooks such as
crossword puzzles, category games, etc. This
manipulation and reinforcement step can be made
easier by selecting the words to be taught from
4. Motor Imaging
It appears that even the highest forms of
vocabulary and concept learning have
psychomotor foundations, or equivalents.
Hence, motor movements associated with
certain stimuli can become interiorized as a
“symbolic meaning” (Piaget, 1963 in Manzo
and Manzo1993).
There are three considerable advantages to
knowing this where remediation is concerned
a. First, since physical-sensory or proprioceptive
learning can be interiorized, they also can be self-
stimulating, and as such, they are easier to
rehearse and recall with the slightest mental
reminder, as well as from external stimulation.
b. Second, proprioceptive learning is so basic to
human learning that it is common to all learners,
fast and slow, and hence, ideal for
heterogeneously grouped classes.
c. Third, the act of identifying and acting out a
word becomes a life experience in itself with the
word – a value that Frederick Duffellmeyer (1980)
in Manzo and Manzo (1993) demonstrated when he
PROCEDURE

1. Take a difficult word from the text, write it on the

chalkboard, pronounce it, and tell what it means.

2. Ask students to imagine a simple pantomime for

the word meaning (“How could you show someone

what this word means with just your hands or a

4. Select the most common pantomime
observed. Demonstrate it all to the students,
saying the word while doing the pantomime.
5. Repeat each new word, this time directing
the class to do the pantomime while saying a
brief meaning or simple synonym.
6. Let the students encounter the word in the
assigned reading material.
7. Try to use the pantomime casually
whenever the word is used for a short time
 Group
Activity
(Performance Task)
 Remedial
Instructions
in English
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson/session,
students will be able to:
• Identify Remedial Instruction in
Listening and its other special features.
• Determine Factors Affecting Students’
Listening Comprehension.
• Classify ways to improve Students’
Listening Comprehension
Warm Up!
ACTIVITY
(Individual Task)
Direction: Accomplish this activity by gathering
related and similar concepts/ideas in the given
term below using the Semantic Map.

Listeni
ng
Unit III
Remedial
Instruction in
Listening
A. Factors Affecting Students’ Listening
Comprehension
1. Internal factors – refer to the learner
characteristics, language proficiency,
memory, age, gender, background knowledge
as well as aptitude, motivation, and
psychological and physiological factors
2. External factors - are mainly related to the
type of language input and tasks and the
context in which listening occurs
A. Factors Affecting Students’ Listening
Comprehension
1. Internal factors – refer to the learner
characteristics, language proficiency,
memory, age, gender, background knowledge
as well as aptitude, motivation, and
psychological and physiological factors
2. External factors - are mainly related to the
type of language input and tasks and the
context in which listening occurs
Internal Factors
1. Problems in language proficiency (cover
problems on phonetics and phonology like
phonetic discrimination, and phonetic varieties;
problems in grammar; and lexicological
problems)
2. Poor background knowledge
3. Lack of motivation to listen
4. Psychological factors
5. Other internal factors (age, attention span,
memory span, reaction and sensitivity)
External Factors
1. Speed of delivery and different accents
of the speakers
2. The content and task of listening
materials
3. Context - refers to the spatial-temporal
location of the utterance, i.e. on the
particular time and particular place at
which the speaker makes an utterance and
the particular time and place at which the
External Factors
4. Co-text - another major factor influencing the
interpretation of meaning. It refers to the
linguistic context or the textual environment
provided by the discourse or text in which a
particular utterance occurs. Co-text constrains
the way in which we interpret the response.
Here we can infer that the person is not going to
a picnic by judging from the co-text.
A: Are you coming going to Baguio with us?
B: I have a paper to finish by Monday.
How to Improve
Students’ Listening
Comprehension?
1. Teach pronunciation, stress, and intonation of

the critical sounds of English

2. Practice sound discrimination, and incomplete

plosives

3. Recognize stressed and unstressed words

4. Enrich vocabulary

5. Teach grammar
 Remedial
Instructions
in English
Unit IV
Remedial
Instruction in
Speaking
 Warm Up!
Dictionary Game
What makes speaking difficult?
1. Clustering
2. Redundancy
3. Reduced forms
4. Performance variables
5. Colloquial language
6. Rate of delivery
7. Stress, rhythm, and intonation
8. Interaction
Teaching Pronunciation
Below are techniques and practice,
materials in teaching pronunciation which
have been used traditionally and continues
to be utilized in speaking classes.
1. Listen and imitate. Learners listen to a
model provided by the teacher and then
repeat or imitate it.
2. Phonetic training. Articulatory
descriptions, articulatory diagrams, and a
phonetic alphabet are used.
3. Minimal Pair drills. These provide
practice on problematic sounds in the
target language through listening
discrimination and spoken practice. Drills
begin with word level then move to
sentence-level.
4. Contextualized minimal pairs. The
teacher established the setting or context
then key vocabulary is presented. Students
provide meaningful response to sentence
stem.
6. Tongue twisters
7. Developmental approximation drills.
Second language speakers take after
the steps that English-speaking
children follow in acquiring certain
sounds.
8. Practice of vowel shifts and stress
shifts related by affixation
Vowel shift: mime (long i) mimic (short
i)
Sentence context: Street mimes often
mimic the gestures of passersby.
Stress shift: PHOtograph phoTOGraphy
Sentence context: I can tell from these
photographs that you are very good at
photography.
9. Reading aloud/recitation. Passages
and scripts are used for students to
practice and then read aloud focusing
on stress, timing, and intonation.
10. Recording of learners’ production.
Playback allows for giving of feedback
and self-evaluation.
 The Use of Accuracy-based Activities
Accuracy precedes fluency. Form-
focused activities prepare students for
communicative tasks. These activities
have a high degree of control and
focuses on specific language
components. To strike a balance,
Hedge (2000) describes how to make
accuracy-based activities meaningful.
1. Contextualized practice.
This aims to establish the link between
form and function. The activity should
highlight the situation where the form is
commonly used.
2. Personalizing language.
Personalized practice encourages learners
to express their ideas, feelings, and
opinions. These activities help learners to
use language in interpersonal interactions.
3. Building awareness of the social use
of language.
This involves understanding social
conventions in interaction. Communication
strategies are directly taught and practiced
through contextualized activities.
4. Building confidence.
The key is to create a positive climate in
classroom where learners are encouraged
to take risks and engage in activities
Talking to Second Language Learners in the
beginning level Cary (1997) suggests that
teachers need to make speech modifications as
a form of instructional support when teaching
with second language learners.
1. Speak at standard speed. This means
providing more and slightly longer pauses to
give students more time to make sense of the
utterances.
2. Use more gestures, movement, and facial
expressions. These provide emphasis on words
and give learners extra clues as they search for
Talking to Second Language Learners in the
beginning level Cary (1997) suggests that
teachers need to make speech modifications as
a form of instructional support when teaching
with second language learners.
1. Speak at standard speed. This means
providing more and slightly longer pauses to
give students more time to make sense of the
utterances.
2. Use more gestures, movement, and facial
expressions. These provide emphasis on words
and give learners extra clues as they search for
3. Be careful with fused forms.
Language compressions or reduces forms
can be difficult for learners. Use these
forms without overusing or eliminating
them altogether.
4. Use shorter, simpler, sentences.
5. Use specific names instead of pronouns .
 Remedial
Instructions
in English
Unit V
Remedial
Instruction in
Writing
 Areas of Difficulty
for
Students with
Writing
1. Knowledge Difficulties

Students with writing problems show:

a. Less awareness of what constitutes good

writing and how to produce it;

b. Restricted knowledge about genre-specific

c. Poor declarative, procedural, and

conditional strategy knowledge (e.g.,

knowing that one should set goals for

writing, how to set specific goals, and when

it is most beneficial to alter those goals);

d. Limited vocabulary;
f. Impoverished, fragmented, and poorly

organized topic knowledge;

g. Difficulty accessing existing topic

knowledge; and

h. Insensitivity to audience needs and

2. Skill Difficulties

Students with writing problems:

a. Often do not plan before or during writing;

b. Exhibit poor text transcription (e.g.,

spelling, handwriting, and punctuation);

d. Do not analyze or reflect on writing;

e. Have limited ability to self regulate

thoughts, feelings, and actions throughout

the writing process;

f. Show poor attention and concentration;

3. Motivation Difficulties

Students with writing problems:

a. Often do not develop writing goals and

sub goals or flexibly alter them to meet

audience, task, and personal demands;

b. Fail to balance performance goals, which

c. Exhibit maladaptive attributions by

attributing academic success to external and

uncontrollable factors such as task ease or

teacher assistance, but academic failure to

internal yet uncontrollable factors such as limited

aptitude;
Qualities of Strong Writing Instruction

In order for teachers to support all students'

writing ability development, certain qualities

of the writing classroom must be present.

Four core components of effective writing

1. Students should have meaningful

writing experiences and be assigned

authentic writing tasks that promote

personal and collective expression,

reflection, inquiry, discovery, and social

change.
3. Lessons should be designed to help students

master craft elements (e.g., text structure,

character development), writing skills (e.g.,

spelling, punctuation), and process strategies

(e.g., planning and revising tactics).

4. A common language for shared expectations

Adaptations for

Struggling Writers
1. Accommodations in the Learning Environment

a. Increase instructional time for writing.

b. Provide quiet and comfortable spaces for students to

work.

c. Provide unimpeded access to writing tools.

d. Let students identify and select meaningful

reinforcements for achieving writing goals (e.g., a

2. Accommodations in Instructional Materials

a. Simplify language of writing prompts.

b. Highlight (e.g., color code) key words and

phrases.

c. Transition from simple to more elaborate graphic

organizers and procedural checklists.

f. Have students keep a personal dictionary of

“demon” words and frequently used spelling

vocabulary.

g. Provide paper positioning marks on students’

desks.

h. Provide pencil grips for students.

f. Have students keep a personal dictionary of

“demon” words and frequently used spelling

vocabulary.

g. Provide paper positioning marks on students’

desks.

h. Provide pencil grips for students.

 Remedial
Instructions
in English
 Unit VI
Language Programs
and Policies in
Multilingual
Societies
Course Description:
Exploring the relationship
between language and society. In
particular, it examines why people
use language differently in different
social situations, and aims to explain
how they convey social meaning and
signal aspects of our social and
cultural identity through language.
Course Description:
We will discuss how language is
used in multilingual and
monolingual speech communities,
explore the reasons for language
change, and identify the social and
contextual factors conditioning
various linguistic responses.
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the course, you will be
familiar with key sociolinguistic
concepts such as bilingualism, code-
switching, language change, language
shift, language death, language
revival, standard and vernacular
languages, national and official
languages, regional and social dialects,
politeness.
Learning Outcomes:
You will also develop an understanding of
how language use is affected by
solidarity/distance and power relationships,
gender, age, socio economic class and social
networks. You will learn about sociolinguistic
methods through illustrations from a variety of
languages, as well as applications within your
own speech community, and you will develop
the ability to critically think about hard
questions in a disciplined way that will help you
in other courses, too.
YOUR FOCUS!
Teaching and Learning
Languages and Multiliteracies
responding to MTB-MLE
(Mother Tongue-Based
Multilingual Education)
Chapter 1
Theories and Principles of
MTB-MLE
This Chapter provides the theoretical
underpinnings of first and second language
acquisition and learning. It is divided into 3
lessons which discuss sociological and cultural
perspective of language, first language
acquisition (FLA) and literacy development, and
language development and second language.
Lesson 1
Language Identity:
Sociological and
Cultural Perspectives
of Language
Learning Outcomes
The students should be able to:
• Define language.
• Explain the relationship of language and
identity.
• Analyze the relevance of society and culture
to language development and
communication.
• Show the different western cultural
influences on the various Philippine
languages.
Introduction
Language is considered one of the
elements of culture. It is the system
of words or signs that a particular
group of people uses to express
thoughts and feelings with each
other; hence, if you do not belong
to the same group of culture you do
not speak the same language.
Introduction
Language is considered one of the
elements of culture. It is the system
of words or signs that a particular
group of people uses to express
thoughts and feelings with each
other; hence, if you do not belong
to the same group of culture you do
not speak the same language.
 m e m
e As
Reducators, we need to know how
be r !
language shapes who we are, how
we think, and how we process
information and therefore be able to
guide our language learners
becoming proficient communicators
using their mother tongues and
other desired languages.
What is
Language?
Language is the primary tool used
in the communication process. This
connotes sharing one’s thoughts,
emotions, and knowledge with
others using a certain code
(culture) and symbol (language)
that must be learned and shared
between communicators.
For example:
A Japanese girl is asking a Filipino
boy for directions. For the two of
them to communicate they must
establish commonality and
language first and foremost;
otherwise, no communication will
take place between them.
Linguistics
Elements of
Language
Languages in the world share the
same elements, with an exception
of a few which do not have yet
a written orthography.
1. Phonology: (fuh-nol-uh-jee) (n.)
- the sound system of a language.
2. Morphology: (mawr-fol-uh-jee) (n.)
- the study of the structure of words
3. Syntax: (sin-taks) (n.)
- the study of the structure of
sentences.
4. Semantics: (si-man-tiks) (n.)
- the study of meaning in language.
5. Pragmatics: (prag-mat-iks) (n.)
- the appropriate use of language in
different context.
Why is Language
Culture-Based?
• For a listener to understand what a
speaker intends, the speaker should have
something definite in mind. If an idea or
impression is vague in the speaker’s
mind, the resulting message will be
confused and ambiguous.
• Understanding is the core of meaning and
is a two-way process; that is, the speaker
is responsible for representing ideas
clearly, and the listener is responsible for
trying to understand it accurately.
Why is the
Language

Environment?
• All languages take place within a
particular environment.
• A minister and priest speak in the
environment of a church; two friends have
a conversation in the student centre; an
instructor gives a lecture in a classroom.
• Language that is appropriate to one
environment might appear meaningless or
foolish in another. The language you use
in a dormitory, for example, might be
completely inappropriate in a classroom.
• According to Neil Postman,
who writes about the

language and education,

the language
environment
is made up of four elements;
(1) people,
(2) their purpose,
(3) the rules of communication by which they
achieve their purpose, and
(4) the actual talk used in the situation.
Appropriate Language. For any society
to function it must have some
sort of understanding about which
words are inappropriate.
As children grow up, they try out the
new words they hear and from the
reactions of the adults around them,
learn the words they should and
shouldn’t use.
Sometimes you have to refer to
something which it would be
impolite to use the direct word. To
do this you use a euphemism.
Euphemism is an inoffensive word
or phrase that is substituted for
other words that might be
perceived as unpleasant.
1. Garbage man – sanitation engineer
2. Old people – senior citizen
3. Pregnant – in the family way
4. The dead – the deceased/the late
5. Burier – undertaker/mortician
Specialization. Most language environments
have words that are specialized and are
used only in those environment.
Whenever you shift roles, you shift your
language environment and your speech as
well. Let’s say that in a single day you talk
to your roommate, you go to class, and you
speak to your mother on the telephone.
Your role has shifted three times; from peer,
to student relating to instructor, to child
relating to parent.
Why are the styles,
roles, and group
members in

communication?
Style is the result of the way you select and
arrange the words and sentences. People
choose different words to express thought,
and every individual has a unique verbal
styles.
Impressions of personality are often related to
verbal style. When you characterize a person
as formal or aloof, your impression is due in
part to the way the person talks.
Style is so important that it can influence
people’s opinion of you, win their friendship,
lose their respect, or sway them to your ideas.
Like language environment, verbal style is often
connected with the roles you play. Let us look at the
other factors that contribute to differences in language.
Gender. Sociolinguist Deborah Tannen (2009) has found
out the men and women have almost completely
different styles of speaking.
According to her, when women have conversations,
they use the language of rapport-talk. This language is
designed to establish relationships.
Men, however, speak report-talk. In this type of speech
the speaker’s goal is to maintain status, to
demonstrate knowledge and skills and to keep the
center stage position.
Age. Age is one of the factors that determine
difference in language style. Have you noticed
that when adults are with babies their
language style changes? Their pitch becomes
higher and their vocabulary use becomes simpler
to mere one-word utterances.
This is because the brain is the last organ to
mature and scholars believe it to mature at age
eight approximately.
Therefore, this is the age where our brain is
susceptible to language and more exposed we
are to appropriate use of language, the better
Social Status. Scholars have identified
variations in language styles of
people depending on their social status. People
in the business world will have a more brief and
concise style utilizing a more direct language
because to them time is money and any time
wasted is money wasted.
Social status is one of the reason why
languages are perceived to have certain
hierarchy. A good example would be English.
Here in the Philippines, people who speak
impeccable English have more career
Religion. Language and religion offer an
innovative theory of religion as a class
of cultural representations dependent
on language to unify diverse capacities
of the human mind.
Different religions in the world relate
modern cognitive theories of language
and communication to culture and its
dissemination.
 Remedial
Instructions in
English
Lesson 2
First Language
Acquisition (FLA) and
Literacy Development
Learning Outcomes
The students should be able to:
• Define first language, mother tongue,
heritage language, and dialect.
• Explain how children acquire a
language and the processes involved
in their literacy development.
• Compare the different theories of
language and literacy development.
Introduction
Language is not biological; therefore
regardless of race and ethnicity,
children eventually acquire the language
they are first exposed to in their families
especially from their primary caregiver.
Since the primary caregiver is the
mother, this language input came to be
called “motherese” in the 1970 (Crystal,
1987).
The term“motherese” describes the
language adaptation adults make (not
necessarily parents, since some parents do
not apply this principle) to give the child
maximum opportunity to interact and
learn.
Crystal (1987) notes some of these
adaptations such as:
• The utterances are considerably
simplified, especially with respect to their
• There are several features whose
purpose seems to be clarified. Extra
information is provided that would be
considered unnecessary when talking
to an adult.
• There is also an expressive, or affective
element in motherese, shown by the
use of special words or sounds.
Diminutive or reduplicative words like
wee-wee, pee-pee, ma-ma are common.
Before we proceed to the various
theories that explain first
language acquisition (FLA), let us
first understand the following
terms so we will all be grounded
on these definitions as we move
along with the proceeding lessons.
What is a
FIRST
LANGUAGE?
First Language
- The language first acquired as
a child like mother tongue and
native language, or preferred
language in a multilingual
situation.
What is a
SECOND
LANGUAGE?
Second Language
- It is a non-native language that
has an official role in the
country. In the Philippines,
English and Filipino are the two
official languages of commerce
and industry stipulated in the
1987 Philippine Constitution.
What is a
FOREIGN
LANGUAGE?
Foreign Language
- It is a non-native language that has no
official status in the country. Spanish used
to be a second language in the Philippines
in 60s and 70s but lost official status and
became a foreign language.
- This means that Spanish is no longer
officially spoken in the country nor
mandated to be taught in the elementary
and secondary schools just like French,
German, etc.
What is
HERITAGE
LANGUAGE?
Heritage Language
- It is used to identify languages other than the
dominant language. In the Philippines there are
dominant languages like Tagalog, Cebuano, and
many others but there are some minority languages
are spoken by a few social groups like Mandarin.
- In the United States, English is the dominant
language while other languages are like Spanish,
Korean, Tagalog, etc. spoken by immigrants in their
homes but learn English to primarily interact in
government transactions and public communication.
What is a

DIALECT?
 Dialect
- It is a language variety in which the use
of grammar and vocabulary identifies the
regional or social background of the user.
- The measure for us to know that a
language is a language is its
“intelligibility”. Languages in the world
are mutually exclusive meaning they are
not mutually intelligible.
 Dialect
- You will observe certain variations or difference
in their pronunciation, accentuation and even
some words but speakers of these dialects (or
variations) of Tagalog can still understand each
other. Let us look at some of these scenarios:
- A Batangueno will say “ay sadya” while a
Bulacano will say “ay totoo” but will still
understand each other.
- A Caviteno will say “Parini ka ngang bat aka!”
while a Manileno will say “Halika nga ditong bat
aka!”.
 Activate your
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
(Individual Task)
Get 1 whole sheet of paper
 Note the following questions and
think about the answer.
1. What is the difference between acquisition
and learning?
2. What is the comparison between speech and
language?
3. Is language acquisition true for all children?
4. What is the role of adults in the language and
literacy development of children?
5. What is the relationship between cognition
and language?
Through the years, language acquisition has been
defined in various perspectives and in various
ways. As language teachers, we need to
understand all of these theories and approaches in
order to combine them and make a more responsive
theory-based language curriculum appropriate to our
learners regardless of generation.
Truly, children in the current era are far more
advanced and sophisticated in their mental abilities
and intelligences but despite all of these
evolutionary improvements, children still go through
predictable stages of mental, physical, and
socioemotional development.
To better understand the complexity of language
Behaviorist Perspective
The first perspective to shed light to learning
and language acquisition is behaviorism.
Behaviorists believe that language like any
other knowledge, skills and values can be
taught to children via repetition, imitation and
habituation.
The most influential behaviorist is B.F. Skinner
with his Operant Conditioning Theory which was
highly influenced by Edward Thorndike’s
Connectionism Theory also known as the Theory
of Effect (3 laws of education: law of readiness,
Burrhus Frederic Skinner, most fondly known as
B.F. skinner, is the father of Operant
Conditioning.
He explains that a behaviour that is
continuously reinforced tends to be repeated
and becomes deeply rooted in an individual’s
behaviour and a behaviour that is not
reinforced dies-out and is eventually forgotten.
Skinner argued that children learn language
based on reinforcement (positive and negative)
principles by associating words with meanings.
This theory is called imitation.
Children learn to speak, in the popular
view, by coping the utterances heard
around them, and by having their
responses strengthened by the
repetitions, corrections, and other
reactions that adults provide.
Language in the behaviorist perspectives
is viewed as consistent formal pattern and
through imitation and constant practice
language is developed just like in habit.
This process is called habituation.
Constructivist Perspective
The two most recognised cognitivists
are Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotzky.
Although both are highly concerned
with how children acquire and
construct meaning, their views quite
differ but unlike behaviourists, both
do not view children as empty vessels
(tabula rasa) waiting to filled in by an
expert and learned adult.
Let us begin with Jean Piaget who argues
that children are active learners who
construct meaning from their environment.
Jean Piaget is the proponent of cognitive
development theory that explains the
interconnectedness of knowledge
acquisition and language acquisition
through qualitative changes of their mental
processes as they develop.
He views children as active learners,
constructing knowledge over time, as they
interact with their environment through
The first stage is the Sensorimotor Stage which
extends from birth to the acquisition of
language.
Children actively construct an understanding of
the world by physically interacting with the
environment using their various senses such as
seeing, hearing, grasping, sucking and stepping
and progressively learn that they are separated
from the environment and that these objectives
in the environment continue to exist with or
without physically interacting with them.
This development is called object permanence
The second stage is the Preoperational Stage which
begins when children start talking
approximately at age two and extends up
to seven years. They do not understand concrete
logic and have difficulty manipulating objects
mentally.
Knowledge development and language acquisition
in this stage is primarily centered on pretend play
which is form of symbolic play.
Symbolic play is the ability of children to use
objects to represent other objects and will
ultimately progress to symbolic function when
children can now mentally understand, represent,
Children eventually acquire Intuitive Thinking at the
end of this stage. This is where they
begin to want to know everything as
evidenced by their series of questions that seem
endless and unquenchable.
The third stage is the concrete operational stage
which immediately following preoperational stage
at age seven to 12 years where children begin to
acquire concrete logical thinking like inductive
reasoning.
Children begin to solve problems logically and
language acquisition moves to social matters:
adolescent’s sense of personal uniqueness and
The fourth and last stage is the formal
operational stage which extends
adolescence to adulthood years. Knowledge
development is demonstrated through logical
use of symbols related to abstract concepts.
Children acquire hypothetical and deductive
reasoning. In this stage, individuals learn to use
language abstractly without relying on concrete
representation.
Constructivist’s perspective of language
acquisition is generally centered on brain
Sociocultural Perspective
Now, that we have thoroughly learned Piaget’s
explanation of how children construct meaning
and acquire language from the environment, let
us now understand Vygotsky’s perspective.
If Piaget’s view of learning and language
acquisition is centered on the children’s
changes of logical thinking through four stages
based on maturation and experience,
Vygotsky’s view is centered on the role of
culture and social interactions of children with
other children and adults in the environment.
Interactionists’ Perspective
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (SLT)
explains children learn from each other and from
others through observation, imitation and
modelling.
This theory explains that children imitate the
words and language patterns they hear by
watching and listening to the models, caregivers,
and family member in their life.
Interactionists argue that children are social
beings and they need more than adults to
observe, imitate, and model from and more than
They need to socialize because like any individual,
children are social beings and they need
language acquisition support system (LASS) like
their families, community, technology and even print
and non print materials to help acquire the
language.
Bandura’s analysis of observational learning involves
four phases; attention, retention, reproduction, and
motivational.
1. Attention Phase: The first phase in observational
learning is paying attention to a model. This explains
why children stop whatever they are doing whenever
they see favourite TV commercial and dance and
This phase actually explains why teenagers are hooked
up with pop culture; they are visually
attracted to this type of stimulus. Teachers
and adults, therefore, must get first understand what
interest children and use this to capture their
attention.
2. Retention Phase: Once teachers and adults have
students attention, it is time to model the behaviour
they want students to replicate and then give learners
a chance to practice or rehearse.
3. Reproduction: During the reproduction phase,
learners attempt to replicate the model’s behaviour. In
the classroom this takes the form of an assessment of
learners’ learning. In homes, this is when children act
4. Motivation Phase: The final stage in the
observational learning process is
motivation. Children will imitate a
model because they believe that doing so will
increase their own chances to be reinforced.
Another two contributions of Bandura’s SLT
are vicarious learning and self-regulated
learning.
Vicarious Learning is the process by which
children learn from the reinforced (negative or
positive) learning and/or behaviour of other
people. Al
Self-regulated learning is the process where
children observe and evaluate their own
behaviour against their own standards, and
reinforce or punish themselves,
Self-regulated learners are effective because
they (a) analyze the tasks teachers give
them and set effective goals for learning, (b)
use appropriate strategies to reach goals, and
(c) monitor their progress and modify learning
approaches if necessary.
 Language
Programs and
Policies in
Multilingual
Societies
Lesson 3
Language
Development and
Second Language
Learning Outcomes
The students should be able to:
• Explain theories of second language
acquisition (SLA).
• Compare major theories of language
acquisition.
• Analyze the MTB-MLE curriculum in the
Philippines against first language and
second language acquisition theories.
Introduction
You will observe that apparently the
three languages are different in three
major elements: pronunciation,
vocabulary, and word order (syntax). In
spite of all the differences, however,
these languages still have a lot in
common – one may even claim that the
similarities are more striking than the
differences.
Introduction
Most or all languages in the world share
these and many other features. This
phenomenon is called linguistic
universal.
A linguistic universal is a pattern that
occurs systematically across natural
languages, potentially true for all of
them.
In this lesson, we will be learning
about second language acquisition
and how proficiency in the first
language can be transitioned and
transferred to proficiency in the
target language (second language).
Affirming or Agreeing Denying or Partially
Disagreeing Affirming/Agreeing
I agree. I disagree. That may be so, but…
I accept that… I can’t accept that. Yes, but…
I agree with you I won’t accept that. I accept that, but …
that…
That is true. You can’t be serious. Aren’t you forgetting
that…
Of course, yes. Of course not. Yes, but…
I couldn’t agree more Impossible. I take your point,
but…
You are absolutely You can’t mean it. I’m not sure about
right. that.
There are two major theories that
explain second language
acquisition; Cummins’
Interdependence Hypothesis and
Krashen’s Natural Approach.
Cummins’ Interdependence
Hypothesis
Knowledge of how first language or mother
tongue is acquired lends understanding of
how second language is acquired, too.
Jim Cummins in his language
interdependence hypothesis explained that
all languages have common underlying
proficiency (CUP).
Languages may appear to have different
surface structures but their deep structures
are common; hence, proficiency in the first
language leads to proficiency in second
language.
He differentiated ideas about the two principal
continua of second language development in a
simple matrix. BICS describes the development
of conversational fluency (Basic Interpersonal
Communicative Skills) in the second language,
whereas CALP describes the use in
decontextualized academic situations
The implication of Cummins’
Interdependence hypothesis explains
how one language can be transitioned
to another language and another
language.
Teachers must focus on the common
underlying proficiencies of the
language in order to successfully
transfer in one language to another.
Krashen’s Natural
Approach to
Second Language
Acquisition
Dr. Stephen Krashen is professor
emeritus at the University of
Southern California. He is a linguist
and educational researcher.
He is known for his Natural Approach
Theory of second language which he
developed with Tracy Terrell.
His theory is centered on a
comprehension-based approach to
Krashen & Terrell’s (1998) theory focuses on
both oral and written communication skills.
It was developed on the premise of four
principles:
1. Comprehension of language begins before
language production.
2. Language production emerges in stages.
3. Language learning is done using
communication and interaction in the target
language.
4. Classroom tasks and activities are centered
The goal of The Natural Approach is “the
ability to communicate with native speakers of
the target language”. There are five
hypotheses that outline the Natural Approach
theory as defined below.
The Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis
Krashen, in his theory of second language
acquisition (SLA) suggested that adults have
two different ways of developing competence
in second languages: Acquisition and learning.
They make a distinction between language
acquisition and language learning.
Language acquisition occurs
subconsciously. While it is happening, we
are not aware that it is happening. We
think we are having a conversation, reading
a book, watching a movie. Of course, we
are, but at the same time, we might be
acquiring language.
Also, once we have something, we are not
usually aware that anything has happened;
the knowledge is stored in our brains
subconsciously.
Language learning, on the other hand, is a
conscious effort. Language learning is a
direct and conscious effort to learn the
rules that govern the use of the language.
Error correction is supposed to help in the
learning process.
When a child says “I goed to school” and
the teacher corrects it with “No, you say: I
went to school,” the learner is expected to
remember the past form of the irregular
verb ‘go’ is ‘went’.
The Natural Order Hypothesis
It explains that we acquire not
learn, the parts of language or
grammatical structures in a
predictable progression. There are
some grammatical structures that
are acquired early on while others
are acquired later in life.
The Input Hypothesis
It explains that the language
learners acquire a language by
receiving comprehensive input
that is an input slightly higher
than their current level of
proficiency.
The Monitor Hypothesis
The monitor is conscious learning
process which learners attend to
form, figure out rules and are
generally aware of their own
process. It edits and makes
alterations or corrections as they
are consciously perceived.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis
This hypothesis reflects the personal
attitude of the learner as well as their
attitude about their environment.
A learner who is not comfortable in his/her
environment is more anxious and the
hinders him/her to be motivated to use the
target language. Conversely, a learner
who is comfortable and is ate ease with
the environment is more motivated to use
the target language
Language teachers, therefore, need to allow
learners to commit mistakes and errors to
positively and constructively help them acquire
the necessary language proficiency that will
enable them to expressively the target
language.
Correcting the child every time he/she commits
a mistake will most likely make him/her create a
wall that will hinder him from talking or using
the target language.
No one is born proficient in a language even in
his/her first language but he/she has the
On Mother Tongue-
Based Multilingual
Education (MTB-
MLE)
Mother Tongue-Based Instruction is
referred to by Department of
Education (DepEd) as Mother Tongue-
Based Multilingual Education (MLE),
effective use of two languages for literacy
and instruction.
The lessons and finding of various
international studies in basic education
have validated the superiority of the use
of the learner’s mother tongue or first
language in improving learning outcomes
On Language

Acquisition and
All languages are interrelated and
interdependent.
Facility in the first language (L1)
strengthens and supports the learning of
other languages (L2). Acquisition sets od
skills and implicit metalinguistic
knowledge in one language provides the
base for the development of both the first
language and the second language.
This principle explain why it is easier and
easier to learn additional languages.
Language acquisition and learning is an active
process that begins at birth and continues
throughout life.
It is continuous and recursive throughout
student’s lives. Students enhance their
language abilities by using what they know in
new and more complex contexts and with
increasing sophistication (spiral progression).
Positive experiences in language-rich
environments enable students to leave school
with a desire to continue to extend their
knowledge, skills, and interests.
Language requires meaning.
We learn when we use what we know to
understand what is new. Start with the
students know; use that to introduce new
concepts. They use language to examine
new experiences and knowledge in relation
to their prior knowledge, experiences, and
beliefs.
They make connections, anticipate
possibilities,, reflect upon ideas, and
determine courses of action.
Successful language learning
involves viewing, listening,
speaking reading and writing
activities and accuracy.
Language learning should include a
plethora of strategies and activities
that helps students focus on both
MEANING and ACCURACY.
Language learning involves recognizing,
accepting, valuing and building on students’
existing language competence, including
the use of non-standard forms of the
language, and extending the range of
language available to the students.
Through language learning, learners
develop functional and critical literacy,
skills. They learn to control and understand
the conventions of the target language that
are valued and rewarded by society and to
reflect on and critically analyze their own
 Language
Programs and
Policies in
Multilingual
Societies
PLOT
SYNOPSIS
Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson/session
students will be able
to:
• To define the meaning of PLOT
SYNOPSIS and explain its other
special features.
• To determine parts of the PLOT
SYNOPSIS.
• To distinguish HOW TO CREATE OR
What is a
Plot
Synopsis?
 Defining Plot Synopsis
• A synopsis is an in-depth summary of a
written work that describes the
content of that work from beginning to
end.
• Unlike a summary, which just gives a
general overview of a story, a synopsis
contains all of the plot details,
including the end.
• Typically, synopses are submitted to
 Defining Plot Synopsis
• A good synopsis will cover the main
conflict and the resolution of the story
while describing the emotional
development of the main character.
• It is important to edit your synopsis
carefully, as it will usually be included
as part of a larger proposal.
Recap:
5 Parts of a
PLOT
1. Exposition: Beginning of
the story
The exposition is the beginning of
the story and prepares the way for
upcoming events. In the exposition,
the author
introduces the major characters,
establishes the setting and reveals
major conflicts in the story.
2. Rising Action
The rising action occurs when the
main problem or conflict is
addressed with a form of action
. The rising action always leads up
to the climax.
During the rising action, the
protagonist often encounters some
sort of crisis that creates tension.
3. Climax
The climax is the pivotal point in the
story when the protagonist deals
with the culmination of events. The
climax often centers on the
protagonist's most difficult
challenge or bleakest moment,
according to Pasadena City College.
4. Falling Action
The falling action occurs
immediately after the climax
and details the consequences --
good or bad -- that the characters
must deal with after the turning
point of events.
It leads up to the resolution and
sets the stage for the final chapter
 5. Resolution: End of the
story
The resolution tells us what happens to the
characters after the conflict is resolved. All
the loose ends are tied up, unless the author
plans to write a sequel and purposely leaves
room for further plot developments.
Some stories have happy endings; others
have sad endings.
The resolution leaves readers with a sense of
closure, so they understand the fate of the
protagonists and antagonists.
How to make a
Plot Synopsis?
Outlining

Plot Synopsis
1. Start the synopsis after you have finished the
project. In most cases, agents and
publishers will only be interested in completed
manuscripts. Writing your synopsis after you
finish the manuscript will help you identify the
main characters, plot points, and conflict.
Established authors who have published before may
be able to get away with submitting an incomplete
book proposal, but most new authors will need a full
manuscript.
You will need to know how the story ends to write
2. Make a list of your main characters.
This may include the protagonist, a love interest, a
villain, or a sidekick. Only the most important
characters should be mentioned in a synopsis.
Take a minute to write out who your main
characters are.
Make sure each of your characters is dynamic,
rather than flat. They all need to be well-rounded
and capable of change. Additionally, each
character should impact the story in a significant
way
3. Sketch out the major plot points in your story.
The synopsis will cover the main narrative arc of
your story. This arc usually does not include
subplots, unless the subplot is important to the
overall conclusion of the main arc.
Try to outline the main conflict, rising action, and
conclusion of your story.
If you wrote a novel or memoir, you may want to
write down a one sentence summary of each
chapter. For example, you might write, “Rory
looks for his father and meets an old friend.
4. Identify what is unique about your story.
Publishers and agents read hundreds of synopses a
week. To make yours stand out, highlight what is unique
in your own story. Use this angle to make your synopsis
different or interesting.
Does your story have an interesting point of view? If so,
be sure to mention it. You can say, “This story centers
around the last dwarf in the underground kingdom.
”Does your story have a unique twist? You can mention
the twist while still leaving some mystery. For example,
you might say, “Jean Paul soon realizes that the
murderer may be closer to him than he thinks.”
5. Research how long the synopsis must be.
Every publishing house and agent will have
different requirements for synopsis length.
Before writing your synopsis, look up a few
publishing houses, film production companies, or
agents. They should list their requirements on
their website.
Novel synopses are usually between two and
twelve pages long.
Screenplay synopses are usually one page long.
Most are no more than 400 words long.
Drafting

Plot Synopsis
1. Write in third person.
Even if you are writing a memoir or a
book in first-person, always write the
synopsis in third person, using "he,"
"she," "it," and "they" as pronouns.
Throughout the synopsis, restate the
main characters' names frequently.
2. Introduce your main characters
and conflict at the beginning.
The first paragraph should
introduce all of the main characters
while giving a general summary of
the entire plot.
The first paragraph should hook
your readers without being too
3. Summarize the main events of the plot.
Include any obstacles that the character
faces and describe how they overcome
these obstacles.
Avoid subplots and any backstories in your
synopsis unless they are crucial to
understanding the main plot.
Don't go into too much detail about
subplots and minor actions. You don't want
your synopsis to be confusing, so focus on
4. End with resolution of the book.
Your reader should understand exactly how
the plot resolves. This is not a good time to
introduce any new information about the
book.
It is never a good idea to leave out the
ending in a synopsis. A publisher or agent
needs to know exactly how it ends.
5. Include only necessary information.
A good synopsis includes what the
character does, feels, and confronts, but it
does not include every detail of the plot.
Leave out side characters whenever
possible, and only write about the major
events of the novel.
Don’t include dialogue in your synopsis.
Instead, just summarize what the
characters said.
6. Demonstrate character development and
emotion.
As you advance the plot, you should
describe what your character learns and
feels throughout the novel.
Explore the mental and emotional state of
your protagonist with every new plot twist
or event.
7. Avoid complimenting your own writing.
While you want to make your synopsis sound
interesting, avoid commenting on the quality of
your own work. Instead, let the plot speak for
itself.
Do not use phrases like “in one tear jerking
scene” or “in a stunning flashback.” Simply
describe the scenes as they happen. If you want
to describe emotions you're hoping to convey in
your work, focus on how your characters react to
certain events, not how you expect the reader to
react.
7. Avoid complimenting your own writing.
While you want to make your synopsis sound
interesting, avoid commenting on the quality of
your own work. Instead, let the plot speak for
itself.
Do not use phrases like “in one tear jerking
scene” or “in a stunning flashback.” Simply
describe the scenes as they happen. If you want
to describe emotions you're hoping to convey in
your work, focus on how your characters react to
certain events, not how you expect the reader to
react.
With your pair,
MAKE A DRAFT OF
YOUR PLOT SYNOPSIS
 Language
Programs and
Policies in
Multilingual
Societies
Chapter 3
Mother Tongue-Based
Multilingual Education
Framework: Its
implementation in the
Basic Education
Curriculum
 Lesson Objectives
At the end of this lesson/session students will
be able to:
• To explain the basic elements of the Mother-
Based Multilingual Education Curriculum
framework.
• To apply the concepts and processes of the
MTBMLE curriculum framework in teaching
learning situations.
• Demonstrate understanding of how the
fourteen 14 domains of literacy and their
INTRODUCTION
From birth, children are exposed to the language
of their families. They learn the word
their families use and develop their own
grammar style to combine and change words in
order to communicate ideas and interact with
the world.
Children’s speaking and listening skills lead the
way to their reading and writing skills. These
four language skills are the primary tools of
mind for all learning.
For this reason, it is important for the primary
MTBMLE is theoretically based, well-
planned educational program that
provides a strong foundation for
literacy using the learner’s
developing cognitive skills and
comprehension of academic content
from day one.
We learn to read once only. Learning
to read in the L1 develops skills that
transfer to reading any other
The strong foundation in the
mother tongue strengthens
cognitive development, acamedic
development, and second
language development – all
leading to competent and
confident use of the three
languages in a variety of
Prior Knowledge. This is essential
for comprehending new
information. Engaging learners in
a discussion of what is already
familiar to them using the home
language enables better learning
of the curriculum through
integration and application of that
knowledge into current knowledge
Cognitive Development and Higher
Order Thinking Skills (HOTS).
As learners articulate their
thought and expand ideas, both
language and critical thinking are
strengthened.
MTBMLE cultivates critical thinking
through talking about ideas in the
familiar language.
Strong Bridge. MTBMLE provides a
good bridge to listening, speaking,
reading, and writing the L2s (L2,
L3)of the classroom using sound
educational principles for building
fluency and confidence in using
other languages of lifelong
learning.
Scaffolding. In teaching L2, the L1 is
used to support learning when the
L2 is not yet sufficiently developed to
be used alone.
The L1 is used for expression and the
teacher facilitates the learners to
adequately express ideas in the L2.
In this way, the L1 strengthens the
learning of the L2 by supporting the
Teaching for MEANING and ACCURACY
The interdependence and interrelationships of
the macro skills of the language such as
listening; speaking, reading and writing and the
development of thinking skills (critical, creative,
and metacognitive) allowing the learners to
make meaning through language. Hence the goal
learning in both L1 and L2 is to become confident
and proficient in:
1. listening, speaking, reading, and writing for
MEANING &
2. listening, speaking, reading, and writing for
Decoding texts requires accuracy, while
comprehending texts requires decoding skills
within a meaningful context. Although both
meaning and accuracy are important in
second language classrooms, there is often
primary focus on accuracy until sufficiently
learned. This delays actual meaningful
learning until L2 can support that learning.
Confidence building and proficiency
development for two or more languages long
these macro-skills: listening speaking,
Guiding Principles
for Teaching and
Learning in
MTBMLE
Below are guiding principles for
teaching and learning in the MTB-MLE
which are lifted verbatim from the K to
12 Curriculum Guide.
Principle 1. Known the Unknown
Learning requires meaning. The most
important single factor that influences
learning is what the learner already
knows.
Principle 2. Language and academic
development
Students with well-developed skills
in their first language have been
shown to acquire additional
languages more easily and fully
and that, in turn, has a positive
impact on academic achievement.
Principle 3. Cognitive Development
Students who use their multilingual
skills have been shown to develop both
cognitive flexibility and divergent
thinking.
Principle 4. Discovery learning
We learn when someone who already
understands the new idea or task helps
us to “discover” the new idea and
Principle 5. Active Learning
Peer interaction. Children learn best
through peer interactions in which they
work together creatively to solve
problems.
Principle 6. Meaning and accuracy.
Successful language learning involves
hearing speaking, reading, and writing
activities that focus on both meaning
Principle 7. Language Learning/language
transfer. We learn a new language best
when the learning process is non-
threatening and meaningful and when we
can take “small steps” that help gain
confidence in our ability to use the
language meaningfully.
Principle 8. Affective Component.
Valuing students with talents in their home
language more powerfully enables learning
than just valuing the classroom and their