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Forming

The document discusses hot and cold working processes in metal deformation, highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of each method. It also covers the concepts of elastic and plastic deformation, including stress-strain relationships, ductility, toughness, and resilience. Additionally, it outlines factors influencing recrystallization behavior and the definitions of true stress and strain.

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shriyadas67417
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7 views31 pages

Forming

The document discusses hot and cold working processes in metal deformation, highlighting the advantages and disadvantages of each method. It also covers the concepts of elastic and plastic deformation, including stress-strain relationships, ductility, toughness, and resilience. Additionally, it outlines factors influencing recrystallization behavior and the definitions of true stress and strain.

Uploaded by

shriyadas67417
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Forming

Hot Working
When deformation is achieved at a temperature
above that at which recrystallization occurs, the
process is termed hot working
- large deformations are possible, which may be
successively repeated because the metal remains
soft and ductile.
- deformation energy requirements are less than for
cold working.
- However, most metals experience some surface
oxidation, which results in material loss and a poor
final surface finish.
Cold working
Cold working produces an increase in strength with the
attendant decrease in ductility, since the metal strain
hardens
advantages over hot working include a higher quality
surface finish,
better mechanical properties
closer dimensional control of the finished piece

On occasion, the total deformation is accomplished in a


series
of steps in which the piece is successively cold worked a
small amount and then process annealed however, this is
an expensive and inconvenient procedure.
Variables that influence recrystallization behaviour

• Amount of prior deformation


• Temperature
• Time
• Initial grain size
• Composition
• Amount of recovery or polygonization prior to the start of
recrystallization
Tension Compression Shear Torsion
Engineering stress is defined by the relationship

Engineering strain is defined


according to

The shear stress is computed


according to
Elastic Deformation

E is the Modulus of elasticity


Schematic stress–
strain diagram
showing linear
elastic deformation
for loading and
unloading cycles.
Plot of
modulus of
elasticity
versus
temperature
for tungsten,
steel,
and aluminum.
Relationship between shear stress and shear
strain for elastic deformation

Shear stress and strain are proportional to each


other through the expression

where G is the shear modulus, the slope of the


linear elastic region of the shear stress–strain
curve.
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Definition of Poisson’s ratio in terms of lateral and axial


strains
If the applied stress is uniaxial (only in the z direction),
and the material is isotropic, then

A parameter termed Poisson’s ratio is defined as the


ratio of the lateral and axial strains, or
The negative sign is included in the
Expression so that will always be positive,
since will always be of opposite sign
Relationship among elastic parameters—
modulus of elasticity, shear modulus, and
Plastic Deformation

For most metallic materials, elastic deformation


persists only to strains of about 0.005.

As the material is deformed beyond this point, the


stress is no longer proportional to strain (Hooke’s
law, ceases to be valid)

and permanent, nonrecoverable, or plastic


deformation occurs
Typical
engineering
stress–
strain
behaviour to
fracture,
point F. The
tensile
strength TS
is indicated
at
point M.
Schematic
representations of
tensile stress–strain
behavior for brittle
and
ductile materials
loaded to fracture.
Ductility - is a
measure of the
degree of plastic
deformation that has
been sustained at
fracture.
Ductility, as percent elongation

Ductility, as percent reduction in area


Engineering stress– strain behaviour for iron at three
temperatures
Resilience
Schematic representation showing
how modulus of resilience
(corresponding to the shaded area)
is determined from the tensile
stress–strain behavior of a material.

Modulus of resilience for a


specimen subjected to a uniaxial
tension test is the area under the
engineering stress–strain curve
taken to yielding
Assuming a linear elastic region
Modulus of resilience for linear elastic behaviour

Modulus of resilience for linear elastic behaviour,


and incorporating Hooke’s law
Toughness
Toughness - is a measure of the ability of a
material to absorb energy up to fracture

For dynamic (high strain rate) loading conditions


and when a notch (or point of stress concentration)
is present -
Notch toughness - is assessed by using an impact
test

Fracture toughness - is a property indicative of a


material’s resistance to fracture when a crack is
present
TRUE STRESS AND STRAIN
True stress is defined as the load F divided by the
instantaneous cross-sectional area over which
deformation is occurring

True strain

If no volume change occurs during deformation—


true and engineering stress and strain are related
according to
A comparison of
typical tensile
engineering stress–
strain and true
stress–strain
behaviors. Necking
begins at point M
on the engineering
curve, which
corresponds to M’
on the true curve.
The “corrected”
true stress– strain
curve takes into

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