Effect of controls

• Bernoulli’s Theorem
• Equation of Continuity
• Airfoil
• Flap Type Controls
• Lift Formula
• Planes of Movement; Primary Effects &
• Weathercock
• Newton’s Laws & Their Effects

Principles •
•
Secondary & Further Effects
Drag

to cover •
•
Spiral Dive Recovery
Effects of:
• Airspeed
• Slipstream
• Power Changes
• Flaps
• Undercarriage
• Trimmer
• Engine Controls
 • In a steady streamline flow, the total mass flow must remain
constant

Equation of • Simply in a pipe, the amount of fluid entering must be equal to

the amount exiting

continuity Another way of stating this is that when there is a reduction in

area, velocity must increase and vice versa
Daniel Bernoulli

• Daniel Bernoulli FRS was

a Swiss mathematician
and physicist and was
one of the many
prominent
mathematicians in the
Bernoulli family from
Basel. He is particularly
remembered for his
Bernoulli's
theorem
In a streamlined flow the sum of
the pressure energies
exerted by the fluid remains
constant
• Pressure energies involved:
1) Static Pressure – energy stored
in every object and exerts
pressure all around it, even
though object is not moving
(balloon)
2) Dynamic Pressure – this pressure
is due to movement (hand out of
speeding car’s window)
ETOTAL = EK + EP = CONSTANT

In a streamline flow of an ideal fluid, the sum of all

the energies will remain constant.
Used to demonstrate Bernoullis
theorum

The
Venturi
tube
• Bernoulli's principle is an idea
of fluid dynamics. It says that as
speed of the fluid increases,
pressure decreases. ... A higher
pressure pushes (accelerates)
fluid toward lower pressure. So
any change in a fluid's speed
must be matched by a change
in pressure (force).
Airfoil
compared to
venturi
The
aerofoil
 The Basic Aerofoil:

Angle of Attack (AoA)

Me a
n Ca
m be
r Lin
e
Trailing edge
Chord
l i ne

Leading edge
α

RAF (Relative Airflow)

Aerofoil definitions
LE
Leading Edge – Front side of the
aerofoil. Cam
M ean ber
Trailing Edge – Rear part of the Camb
er Lin
aerofoil. e
Chor
d Lin
e
TE
Chord Line - Straight line joining
the LE & TE
AoA
Camber– the measure of curvature RA
of an aerofoil section. F
Mean Camber Line – Line joining
the LE & TE that cuts the aerofoil in
exactly half
AoA– Angle Of Attack – the angle of
inclination between the RAF and
the Chord Line.
RAF– Relative Airflow – the airflow
parallel to, but in the opposite
direction, of the aircraft’s intended
flight path.
The lift formula

Lift/Drag = CL ½ρ V² S
Factors affecting lift

Velocity (v): the relative velocity of the air around the aerofoil

Surface area (s): the total area of the aerofoil

Density of air (p): the density of the air

Coefficient of lift (Cl): coefficient of lift

Lift/Drag = CL ½ρ V² S

Form
CL=Wing Shape
+Plan
Angle of Attack
ρ=Air Density

V²=Free Air
Stream Velocity

S=Wing Area
(Surface)
Flap type control
Flap type controls
 Operation of
α
controls
• By lowering /raising the
trailing edge control, the lift
around the airfoil is altered

Lift/Drag = CL ½ρ V² S
elevators
rudder
 • Act symmetrically on both sides of the wing
flaps • Increase CL and therefore total lift of the wing
• Used for take off and landing
Planes of motion • Axis: an imaginary line around which a body
rotates running through the centre of gravity
Normal
axis
• Runs from undercarriage
to canopy
• Use of RUDDER
• Rotation about this axis is
called YAW.
 • Runs from nose to tail
Longitudin • Use AILERON
al axis • Rotation about this axis is called ROLL
 • Runs from wingtip to wingtip
Lateral • Use the ELEVATOR
axis • Rotation about this axis is called PITCH
Cockpit View in Relationship to the
Movement of Aircraft Around its
Axis

Straight & Climb Descend Right Turn

Level (Pitch Up) (Pitch Down) (Roll Right)
Elevator Elevator Aileron
Pull Yoke Push Yoke Yoke Right
Primary and secondary
effects
DEFINITION

• The primary effects (after a momentary application) and

secondary/further effects (after prolonged application) of the
three flying controls will be examined for which they cause
the aircraft to move about the longitudinal (rolling), lateral
(pitching) and vertical axis (yawing). Other factors affecting
the movement of the aircraft will also be covered.
Secondar
y effects
of aileron
• As Aircraft rolls lowered
wing starts slipping in to
the turn, weather cocking
• Aircraft is accelerated
sideways into the turn.
• Wind strikes side of the
keel
• Nose yaws into the turn
• Spiral dives

The secondary effect of aileron is yaw.

Secondary effect of rudder

• As the aircraft yaws one wing accelerates

• The higher velocity causes an increase in lift
• The aircraft starts to roll
• Spiral dives

Secondary
effect is Roll
Secondary effects of elevator *
Pull
Yoke
• No Aerodynamic effects
• Change in speed
• Change in altitude Pitch Up IAS decrease
• R.P.M. changes (fixed pitch)
Push
Yoke

Pitch Down IAS increase

Summary of primary and secondary
CONTROL AXIS PRIMARY SECONDARY FURTHER

Aileron Long. Roll Yaw Spiral Dive

Rudder Normal Yaw Roll Spiral Dive

Elevator Lateral Pitch N/A N/A

Adverse aileron
yaw
Adverse Aileron Yaw

• An initial yaw In the opposite

direction of the Roll.
• The left, down going aileron
produces more lift also more
drag
• The right, up going aileron
produces less lift and less
drag
 Countering adverse aileron yaw

Differential ailerons: Frise Ailerons:

Ailerons deflect through different angles. Ailerons that are hinged slightly inward.
• Apart from the
mechanical corrections
in the previous slide,
use of rudder to co-
ordinate turns
eliminates the yaw
from adverse aileron
drag
Spiral
dives
 Occurs when controls are misused –not co-
ordinated
Signs of the spiral
Spiral • Low nose

dives
• High airspeed
• High Rate of descend
• High bank angle
Dangers of the spiral

Uncontrollable High rate of G-loading on

flight descent aircraft
 • Power close to idle

Recovery • Balance Rudder & Aileron together

out of the dive

from spiral • Nose Position

dive
Elevator, ease out of the

dive • Power
cuts
Set Climb Power as nose
horizon
Speeds to bare in mind with the spiral
Vno:
• Normal operating speed; the
maximum permitted speed for
normal operations.

Vne:
• Never-exceed speed; a higher
maximum speed when
operationally desirable.
Forces on the
aircraft
List of forces

Thrust Weight Lift Drag

Profile induced
Forces Acting on the Airplane
• Thrust
• Forward force
• Drag
• Retarding force
• Weight
• Combined load
• Lift
• Dynamic effect of air acting on the wing
Thrust
• Acceleration
• Thrust > Drag
• Deceleration
• Thrust < Drag
• Straight and level flight
• Low speed
• Cruise speed
• High speed
• Relationship to AoA
 Drag
drag

Profile induced
Profile drag

• Form
• Skin Friction
• Interference
Induced drag
• Produced when lift is produced
• Pressure flow
• Lower surface to higher surface
• Pressure at the wingtips
• Lateral flow
• Rotation (vortices)
• INDUCED DRAG (CONT.)
• CIRCULATION FROM
REAR
• UPWARD FLOW
BEYOND WINGTIP
• DOWNWASH FLOW
BEYOND THE
TRAILING EDGE
• EFFECT ON LIFT
VECTOR
• REARWARD BEND
• REARWARD
• Spanwise movement
LIFTof air
COMPONENT
• Spillage
• Whirlpool of air
• Vortex
• Combines with downwash
• Relationship to induced drag
• Relationship to airplane configuration
Weight

• Gravity
• Pulling force
• Center of gravity
• Bearing on stability
• Design considerations
• Relationship to lift
  Thrust/Drag/
Stabilizer

Force
Couples:

• Lift/weight
Factors affecting
control
effectiveness
 Speed of airflow
Factors Size of controls
affecting
control Length of the control arm
effectiven
ess Amount control is displaced

Slipstream
slipstream

• Air spirals back from the propeller

• This strikes different parts of the aircraft
body at different angles
• This causes a yaw of the aircraft body
slipstream

• Slipstream affects rudder and elevator

• Aileron not affected by slipstream
• High power will keep elevators and rudder
effective while ailerons are sloppy
 The greater the distance between the control and CG, the more
Moment arm effective it is
Size of
controls

The greater the size of the

control surface, the more
effective it will be
The greater the deflection of the
control the greater the effect it has

Amount of
deflection
The greater the speed, the more
effective the control surface

Speed of
airflow
Newton's Laws
• 1st: Momentum or inertia
A body in a state of rest or steady motion in a straight
line will remain in that state of rest or steady motion
unless it is acted upon by an external unbalanced force.

Force applied by elevator

Effects of Controls Principles Involved 62

Newton’s Laws
• 2nd: F=ma
If a force is applied to a body to change its state of rest or steady motion, the
acceleration produced is proportional to the force applied and will act in the direction
in which the force is applied.

Small Force

Big Force

Effects of Controls Principles Involved 63

Newton’s Laws
• 3rd: Action and Reaction
Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

Lift

Drag Thrust

Weight

Effects of Controls Principles Involved 64

Other controls
Trimmers

• Aircraft configuration and

speed changes affect control
positions required to hold
attitude
• Holding the controls deflected
permanently can cause fatigue
• Created to decrease work load
on the pilot

Trimmers are not Primary Flying Controls – Use only to remove

control pressure
Trimmer operation
Engine Controls

Throttle
• (This is the system that controls the amount of air the engine receives)
Mixture
• (This controls the fuel air mixture of the system)
Carb. Heat
• (It inducts hot air into the carburetor and de-ices it)
Cowl Flaps
• (This controls the amount of cooling of the engine)
Pitch
• (This is the system that controls the angle of the propeller blade)
Engine Controls
Carburetor Propeller Pitch Carburetor

Avgas +

Air

Mixture
Throttle
Carburetor System
Mixture Control
Reasons for Mixture
Control

Air
8000 ft Avgas + (Less)

Must be reduced

Avgas +
Air
1000 ft Mixture

Effects of Controls Engine Controls 72

Compiled by D bird