Air Force Institute of Technology, Kaduna

Mechatronics Engineering Department

Faculty of Air Engineering

Title: Electronics 1
Lesson 1

By
Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

(kshobowale@gmail.com)
Course Outline
Diode Rectifications
● Recap of Diode
● Diode Rectifiers
● Half-wave and full-wave diode rectifiers with resistive load
● Polyphase rectifiers.
● Ripple filtering Voltage clipping, clamping and multiplying circuits.
● Regulated Power supplies: Simple zener diode regulator, shunt regulator, series
regulator.
● Integrated circuit rectifier and regulator chips.

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Recap of Diode
●As a technician in an industrial manufacturing facility, you are responsible
for maintaining and troubleshooting all of the automated production
equipment. One particular system is used to count objects on a conveyor for
control and inventory purposes. In order to check out and troubleshoot this
system you must have a knowledge of power supply rectifiers, zener diodes,
light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and photodiodes.

● a diode is a semiconductive device made with a single pn junction. A diode

conducts current when it is forward-biased when the bias voltage exceeds
the barrier potential. A diode prevents current when it is reverse biased at
less than the breakdown voltage.
Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale
Recap of Diode Contd.
●

Diode Structure and

Symbol

The “arrowhead” in the symbol points in the direction opposite the electron
flow. The two terminals of the diode are the anode (A) and cathode (K). The
anode is the p region and the cathode is the n region.

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Recap of Diode Contd.

Forward Bias, where VBIAS is

the bias voltage, and VB
is the barrier potential.

When the anode is positive with respect to the cathode, the diode
is forward-biased and current is from cathode to anode, as shown
in Figure above. Note: when the diode is forward-biased, the barrier
potential, always appears between the anode and cathode, as
indicated in the figure.
Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale
Recap of Diode Contd.

Reverse Bias, where VBIAS

is the bias voltage.

When the anode is negative with respect to the cathode, the diode
is reverse-biased, as shown in Figure above and there is no current.
A resistor is not necessary in reverse bias but it is shown for
consistency.

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Recap of Diode Contd.

Diodes

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Diode Rectification
Rectification: Due to diode’s ability to conduct current in one direction and block current
in the other direction, they are used in circuits called rectifiers that convert ac voltage
into dc voltage. Rectifiers are found in all dc power supplies that operate from an ac
voltage source.
Half-Wave Rectifier
In Figure (a), a diode is connected to an ac source that provides the input voltage, and to
a load resistor, forming a half-wave rectifier.
Operation during one cycle of the input voltage using the ideal model for the diode:
When the sinusoidal input voltage goes positive, the diode is forward-biased and
conducts current through the load resistor, as shown in (b).
The current produces an output voltage across the load, which has the same shape as
the positive half-cycle of the input voltage.

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Diode Rectification
Half-Wave Rectifier

(b.) Operation during positive

(a.) Half-wave rectifier circuit alternation of the input voltage

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Diode Rectification
Half-Wave Rectifier

(d.) Half-wave output

(c.) Operation during negative alternation of the voltage for three input
input voltage cycles

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Half-Wave Rectifier
When the input voltage goes negative during the second half of its cycle, the diode is reverse-biased.
There is no current, so the voltage across the load resistor is zero, as shown in (c). The net result is that
only the positive half-cycles of the ac input voltage appear across the load. Since the output does not
change polarity, it is a pulsating dc voltage, as shown in (d).

Average Value of the Half-Wave Rectified Output Voltage

is the value you would measure on a dc voltmeter. It can be calculated with the following equation where
Vp(out) is the peak value of the half-wave rectified output voltage:

Equation 1
the half-wave voltage with its average
value indicated by the red dashed line
Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale
Half-Wave Rectifier Contd.
Question 1:
What is the average (dc) value of the half-wave rectified output voltage waveform in Figure below

Question 2: Determine the average value

of the half-wave rectified output voltage
if its peak amplitude is 12 V.
Equation 1

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Half-Wave Rectifier Contd.
Effect of Diode Barrier Potential on Half-Wave Rectifier Output Voltage
In the previous slide, the diode was considered ideal. When the diode barrier potential is taken into
account as in the practical model the following happens:
During the positive half-cycle, the input voltage must overcome the barrier potential before the diode
becomes forward-biased. This results in a half-wave output voltage with a peak value that is 0.7 V less
than the peak value of the input voltage, as shown in the Figure below. The expression for peak output
voltage is

Equation 2

Note: When you work with

diode circuits, it is often
practical to neglect the effect of
barrier potential when the peak
Effect of barrier potential on halfwave rectified
value of the applied voltage is
output voltage
much greater (at least ten
times) than the barrier potential.
Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale
Half-Wave Rectifier Contd.
Question 3:
Determine the peak output voltage and the average value of the output voltage of the rectifier in Figure
below for the indicated input voltage.

Equation 2
Question 4: Determine the peak output
voltage for the rectifier in Figure above
if the peak input is 3 V.

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Half-Wave Rectifier Contd.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
The maximum value of reverse voltage, sometimes designated as PIV (peak inverse voltage), occurs at
the peak of each negative alternation of the input cycle when the diode is reverse-biased. This condition
is illustrated below. The PIV equals the peak value of the input voltage, and the diode must be capable of
withstanding this amount of repetitive reverse voltage.

PIV

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Full-Wave Rectifier
The difference between full-wave and half-wave rectification is that a full-wave rectifier allows
unidirectional current to the load during the entire input cycle and the half-wave rectifier allows this only
during one-half of the cycle. The result of full-wave rectification is a dc output voltage that pulsates
every half-cycle of the input, as shown in the figure below.

The average value for a full-wave rectified output voltage is twice that of the half-wave rectified output
voltage, expressed as follows:

Since you can calculate as 2/pi = 0.637, VAVG = 0.637Vp(out).

DR. KAFAYAT OLUWATOYIN SHOBOWALE (KSHOBOWALE@GMAIL.COM)

Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier
The center-tapped (CT) full-wave rectifier uses two diodes connected to
the secondary of a center-tapped transformer, as shown in the Figure.

The input signal is coupled through the transformer to the secondary.

Half of the secondary voltage appears between the center tap and each
end of the secondary winding as shown.

DR. KAFAYAT OLUWATOYIN SHOBOWALE (KSHOBOWALE@GMAIL.COM)

Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier
For a positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the polarities of the
secondary voltages are as shown in Figure (a). This condition
forward-biases the upper diode and reverse-biases the lower diode
The current path is through and the load resistor as indicated. For
a negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the voltage polarities on
the secondary are as shown in Figure (b). This condition reverse-
biases and forward-biases The current path is through and as
indicated. Because the current during both the positive and the
negative portions of the input cycle is in the same direction
through the load, the output voltage developed across the load is a
full-wave rectified dc voltage.

DR. KAFAYAT OLUWATOYIN SHOBOWALE (KSHOBOWALE@GMAIL.COM)

Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier Contd.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
For simplicity, ideal diodes are used to illustrate PIV in a full-wave rectifier. Each diode in the
full-wave rectifier is alternately forward-biased and then reverse-biased. The maximum reverse
voltage that each diode must withstand is the peak value of the total secondary voltage (V P(sec)), as
illustrated in the figure below. When the total secondary voltage V P(sec) has the polarity shown, the
anode of D1 is +VP(sec)/2 and the anode of D2 is -VP(sec)/2 Since D1 is forward-biased, its cathode is
the same as its anode (VP(sec)/2); this is also the voltage on the cathode of D2. The total reverse
voltage across D2 is

DR. KAFAYAT OLUWATOYIN SHOBOWALE (KSHOBOWALE@GMAIL.COM)

Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier Contd.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
For either diode, the PIV in terms of the peak secondary voltage
is Combining the two preceding equations, the peak inverse
voltage across either diode in the center-tapped full-wave
rectifier in terms of the output voltage is

DR. KAFAYAT OLUWATOYIN SHOBOWALE (KSHOBOWALE@GMAIL.COM)

Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier Contd.

DR. KAFAYAT OLUWATOYIN SHOBOWALE (KSHOBOWALE@GMAIL.COM)

Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier
The full-wave bridge rectifier uses four diodes, as shown in the figure below. When the input
cycle is positive as in part (a), diodes and are forward-biased and conduct current in the direction
shown. A voltage is developed across that looks like the positive half of the input cycle. During
this time, diodes D3 and D4 are reverse-biased.

When the input cycle is negative, as in the figure (b) above, diodes and are forward-biased and conduct
current in the same direction through as during the positive half- cycle. During the negative half-cycle,
and are reverse-biased. A full-wave rectified output voltage appears across as a result of this action.

DR. KAFAYAT OLUWATOYIN SHOBOWALE (KSHOBOWALE@GMAIL.COM)

Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Contd.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
Let’s assume that the input is in its positive half-cycle when D1 and D2 are forward-biased and
examine the reverse voltage across D3 and D4. In the figure below, D3 and D4 have a peak
inverse voltage equal to the peak secondary voltage, Vp(sec) Since the peak secondary voltage is
equal to the peak output voltage, the peak inverse voltage is
PIV = Vp(out)
The PIV rating of the bridge diodes is half that required for the center-tapped
configuration for the same output voltage.

DR. KAFAYAT OLUWATOYIN SHOBOWALE (KSHOBOWALE@GMAIL.COM)

Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier Contd.
EXAMPLE
(a)Determine the peak output voltage for the bridge rectifier in Figure 37.
(b)What minimum PIV rating is required for the diodes?

Solution
(c)The peak output voltage is
Vp(out) = Vp(sec) = nVp(in) = (1)25V = 25V

(b) The PIV for each diode is

PIV = Vp(out) = 25V

DR. KAFAYAT OLUWATOYIN SHOBOWALE (KSHOBOWALE@GMAIL.COM)

Polyphase Rectifier
Can be:
Three phase half wave rectifier
Three phase full wave

Three phase half wave rectifier

● Consists of a three phase transformer
with three diodes connected to the three phases.
● The neutral point ‘NTRL’ of the secondary is
considered as the earth for the circuit and is given
as the negative terminal for the load.
3-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Polyphase Rectifier Contd.
Working of a three phase half wave rectifier
● For each one-third of the cycle, each diode conducts.
● At the instant when one diode out of three is conducting,
the other two are left inactive, at that instant their cathodes
becomes positive with respect to the anodes.
● This process repeats for each of the three diodes.
The voltage between the cathode and ‘NTRL’
(dc voltage Vdc) will have a value between the
peak value of alternating voltages per phase Vsm
and half this value ½ Vsm.

3-Phase Half-Wave Rectifier Waveform

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Polyphase Rectifier Contd.
Why use a three phase half wave rectifier
● Provides highest transformer utilization factor (TUF).
● It has a large amount of power, usually greater than 2 kW.
● It has greater efficiency than single phase rectifier.
● It has a reduced ripple factor .
● It facilitates higher peak inverse voltage (PIV).
Use cases
● Used in electric traction.
● Used in radio transmitters.
● Used in electro chemical processing such as production of AI and mg.
● Used in telephone exchange.
● Used in electronic heaters
Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale
Polyphase Rectifier Contd.
Three phase full wave rectifier
● a six wave half wave rectifier.the diodes
D1 to D6will conduct only for ⅙ th of the period,
with a period of pi/3.
● From the output wave form, the fluctuation of
dc voltage is less in a three phase circuit.
The variation lies between the maximum
alternation voltage and 86.6% of this,
with the average value being 0.955 times the
maximum value.

3-Phase full-Wave Rectifier

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Polyphase Rectifier Contd.
Workings of a three phase full wave rectifier
● out of the six diodes, only one diode conducts at a particular instant.
● the current flows only through one phase of the transformer secondaries and primaries, at a
particular instant.There will be a line- to-line current flow, with the transformer primary is
being connected in delta connection.
● But when the primaries are in star connection, two of three phases are virtually open
circuited a t every instant. Thus for a three phase full wave rectifier,star connection is not
practical.
● For any polyphase rectifier, the neutral point must be provided by connecting the secondary
windings of the transformer as it is considered as the negative terminal of the dc output
circuit.

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Diode Clipping
As well as being used as rectifiers, diodes can also be used to clip or limit the top, or bottom, or both of
a waveform at a particular dc level and pass it to the output without distortion.
Diode Clipping Circuits are used to eliminate amplitude noise or voltage spikes, voltage regulation or
to produce new waveforms from an existing signal such as squaring off the peaks of a sinusoidal
waveform to obtain a rectangular waveform as seen above.
• Positive Diode Clipping Circuits
In this diode clipping circuit, the diode is forward during the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input
waveform. For the diode to become forward biased, it must have the input voltage magnitude greater
than +0.7 volts (0.3 volts for a germanium diode). When this happens the diodes begins to conduct and
holds the voltage across itself constant at 0.7V until the sinusoidal waveform falls below this value.
Thus the output voltage which is taken across the diode can never exceed 0.7 volts during the positive
half cycle.
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased (cathode more positive than anode) blocking
current Ùow through itself and as a result has no effect on the negative half of the sinusoidal voltage
which passes to the load unaltered. Thus the diode limits the positive half of the input waveform and is
known as a positive clipper circuit.

DR. KAFAYAT OLUWATOYIN SHOBOWALE (KSHOBOWALE@GMAIL.COM)

Diode Clipping Contd.

• Negative Diode Clipping Circuits: Here the reverse is true. The diode is forward biased during
the negative half cycle of the sinusoidal waveform and limits or clips it to –0.7 volts while allowing
the positive half cycle to pass unaltered when reverse biased. As the diode limits the negative half
cycle of the input voltage it is therefore called a negative clipper circuit.
• Clipping of Both Half Cycles: If we connected two diodes in inverse parallel as shown, then both
the positive and
negative half cycles would be clipped as diode D clips the positive half cycle of the sinusoidal input
waveform while diode D clips the negative half cycle. Then diode clipping circuits can be used to clip
the positive half cycle, the negative half cycle or both.

DR. KAFAYAT OLUWATOYIN SHOBOWALE (KSHOBOWALE@GMAIL.COM)

Rectifier
Note for half-wave rectifier:

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Rectifier
Note for full-wave rectifier:

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Assignment
●Describe a rectifier and briefly discuss the electronic devices (and their types) that can
be used in rectification
● List the advantages, disadvantages and applications of each of the types of rectification
mentioned above
● Discuss why the Polyphase Rectifier has an advantage over the Half-Wave, Single
Phase Rectifier
● Describe the operations of Clamper and Multiplier Circuits

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

Thank You!

Dr. Kafayat Oluwatoyin Shobowale

(kshobowale@gmail.com)