EE 309

ANALOG ELECTRONICS and

DESIGN
Yasa Ekşioğlu Özok

E-mail: yasa.eksioglu@altinbas.edu.tr
 TEXT Book:

• Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design

Donald A. Neamen -McGrawHill, 4e,2009

Reference Book

• Microelectronic Circuits
Sedra Smith and Kenneth C. Smith-Oxford University
Press, 6/e, 2010.

Altınbaş Üniversitesi Yasa Ekşioğlu Özok yasa.eksioglu@altinbas.edu.tr EE 309 ANALOG ELECTRONICS and DESIGN
 COURSE CONTENTS:
❑ Semiconductors Materials and Diodes

❑ Diode Circuits

❑ The Field-Effect Transistor (FET)

❑ Basic FET Amplifiers

❑ The Bipolar junction Transistor

Altınbaş Üniversitesi Yasa Ekşioğlu Özok yasa.eksioglu@altinbas.edu.tr EE 309 ANALOG ELECTRONICS and DESIGN
 DIODE CIRCUITS
• Rectifier Circuits
Chapter 2
• Zener Diode Circuits

Altınbaş Üniversitesi Yasa Ekşioğlu Özok yasa.eksioglu@altinbas.edu.tr EE 309 ANALOG ELECTRONICS and DESIGN
• a basic electronic device, diode, is a two-terminal device,

𝑣𝐷
• 𝑖– 𝑣 relationship is nonlinear; 𝑖𝐷 = 𝐼𝑠 (𝑒 𝑛𝑉𝑇 − 1)

5
RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
Rectifier circuits form the first stage in the process of converting an ac
signal into a dc signal in the electronic power supply. A dc voltage is
required to power electronic devices, i.e. computers, televisions, stereo
systems. An electrical cord that is plugged into a wall socket and attached
to a television, is connected to a rectifier circuit inside the TV.
The first block in a dc power supply is the power transformer. It consists
of two separate coils wound around an iron core that magnetically couples
the two windings.

A diagram of a dc power supply. The output voltage 𝑣0 is usually in the range of 3 to 24 V depending on the
particular electronics application.
6
RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
Rectification is classified as half-wave or full-wave
▪ Half-wave (simpler)
▪ Full-wave (more efficient)

Half-wave Rectifier
Figure (a) shows a power transformer with a diode and resistor connected to the
secondary of the transformer. The primary winding, having 𝑁1 turns, is connected
to the ac supply (in general 120 V) and the secondary winding, having 𝑁2 turns, is
connected to the circuit of the dc power supply.
In order to analyze the system the piecewise linear approach will be used. When
the diode is “on” assume the diode forward resistance is 𝑟𝑓 = 0

(a) Half-wave rectifier circuit (b) voltage transfer characteristics

7
Half-wave Rectifier
The input signal, 𝑣𝐼 , is, in general, a 120 V (rms), 60 Hz ac signal. Recall that the
secondary voltage, 𝑣𝑆 , and primary voltage, 𝑣𝐼 , of an ideal transformer are related
by
𝑣𝐼 𝑁1 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 are the number of primary and secondary turns.
= 𝑁1
𝑣𝑆 𝑁2 𝑁2
is called the transformer turns ratio. This ratio will be designed to
provide a particular secondary voltage, 𝑣𝑆 , which in turn will
produce a particular output voltage 𝑣𝑜 .

(a) Half-wave rectifier circuit (b) voltage transfer characteristics

𝑣𝐼 :primary voltage
𝑣𝑆 :secondary voltage
8
Half-wave Rectifier
Figure (b) shows the voltage transfer characteristics, 𝑣0 versus 𝑣𝑠 , for the circuit.

For 𝑣𝑠 < 0, the diode is reverse biased, which means that the current is zero and the
output voltage is zero. As long as 𝑣𝑠 < 𝑉𝛾 , the diode will be nonconducting, so the
output voltage will remain zero.

When 𝑣𝑠 > 𝑉𝛾 , the diode becomes forward biased and a current is induced in the
circuit. In this case, we can write

𝑣𝑠 − 𝑉𝛾 and 𝑣0 = 𝑖𝐷 𝑅 = 𝑣𝑆 − 𝑉𝛾
𝑖𝐷 =
𝑅

(a) Half-wave rectifier circuit (b) voltage transfer characteristics

9
Half-wave Rectifier
The output signal is 𝑣0 = 𝑣𝑆 −𝑉𝛾 . The input signal 𝑣𝑆 alternates polarity and has a
time-average value of zero, the output voltage 𝑣0 is unidirectional and has an
average value that is not zero. The input signal is rectified. Also, since the output
voltage appears only during the positive cycle of the input signal, the circuit is called
a half-wave rectifier.

Signals of the half-wave rectifier circuit :

(a) sinusoidal input voltage (b) rectified output voltage,

10
Half-wave Rectifier

In selecting diodes for rectifier design, two important parameters must be specified:

• The current-handling capability required of the diode, determined by the largest

current the diode is expected to conduct.

• The peak inverse voltage (PIV) that the diode must be able to withstand without
breakdown, determined by the largest reverse voltage that is expected to appear
across the diode.

The diode must be capable of handling the peak current in the forward direction and
sustaining the largest peak inverse voltage (PIV) without breakdown.

Note: The breakdown region is entered when the magnitude of the reverse voltage
exceeds a threshold value that is specific to the particular diode, called the
breakdown voltage.

11
Half-wave Rectifier

When 𝑣𝑆 is negative the diode will be cut off and 𝑣0 will be zero. It follows that the PIV
is equal to the peak of 𝑣𝑆 ,

𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 𝑣𝑆

(a) Half-wave rectifier circuit (b) voltage transfer characteristics

12
Half-wave Rectifier
We can use a half-wave rectifier circuit to charge a battery as shown in Figure (a).
Charging current exists whenever the instantaneous ac source voltage is greater than
the battery voltage plus the diode cut-in voltage as shown in Figure (b).
The resistance R in the circuit is to limit the current. When the ac source voltage is less
than 𝑉𝐵 , the current is zero. Thus current flows only in the direction to charge the
battery.
One disadvantage of the half-wave rectifier is that we “waste” the negative half-cycles.
The current is zero during the negative half-cycles, so there is no energy dissipated,
but at the same time, we are not making use of any possible available energy.

13
Ex 1. Determine the currents and voltages in a half-wave rectifier circuit. Consider
the circuit shown in Figure.
Assume 𝑉𝐵 = 12𝑉, R = 100 , and 𝑉𝛾 = 0.6𝑉. Also assume 𝑣𝑠 𝑡 = 24𝑠𝑖𝑛ωt.

Determine the peak diode current, maximum reverse-bias diode voltage, and the
fraction of the cycle over which the diode is conducting.

14
15
Ex 2. A half-wave rectifier such as shown in Figure has a 2 kΩ load.
The input is a 120 V (rms), 60 Hz signal and the transformer is a 10:1 stepdown
transformer. The diode has a cut-in voltage of 𝑉𝛾 = 0.7𝑉 (𝑟𝑓 = 0)

(a) What is the peak output voltage?

(b) Determine the peak diode current.

16
17
Full-wave Rectifier
▪ The full-wave rectifier inverts the negative portions of the sine wave hence a
unipolar output signal is generated during both halves of the input sinusoid. Here the
transformer secondary winding is center-tapped to provide two equal voltages 𝑣𝑆
across the two halves of the secondary winding with the polarities indicated.

▪ Assume that the forward diode resistance 𝑟𝑓 of each diode is small and negligible,
so the voltage transfer characteristics, are shown (b). 𝑣𝐼 :primary voltage
𝑣𝑆 :secondary voltage
An example of a full-wave rectifier circuit :

(a) circuit with center-tapped transformer (b) voltage transfer characteristics

The input to the rectifier consists of a power transformer, in which the input is normally
a 120 V (rms), 60 Hz ac signal.
18
Full-wave Rectifier

The primary winding connected to the 120 V ac source has 𝑁1 windings,

and each half of the secondary winding has 𝑁2 windings. The value of the
𝑣𝑆 output voltage is 120 (𝑁2 / 𝑁1 ) volts (rms). The turns ratio of the
transformer can be designed to “step down” the input line voltage to a value
that will produce a particular dc output voltage from the rectifier.

𝑣𝐼 :primary voltage
𝑣𝑆 :secondary voltage

𝑣𝐼 𝑁1
=
𝑣𝑆 𝑁2

(a) circuit with center-tapped transformer

19
Full-wave Rectifier
Note that when the input line voltage (feeding the primary) is positive, both of the
signals labeled 𝑣𝑆 will be positive. In this case 𝐷1 will conduct and 𝐷2 will be reverse
biased. The current through 𝐷1 will flow through R and back to the center tap of the
secondary. The circuit then behaves like a half-wave rectifier, and the output during
the positive half-cycles when 𝐷1 conducts will be identical to that produced by the half-
wave rectifier.

20
Full-wave Rectifier
Now, during the negative half-cycle of the ac line voltage, both of the voltages labeled
𝑣𝑠 will be negative. Thus 𝐷1 will be cut off while 𝐷2 will conduct. The current conducted
by 𝐷2 will flow through R and back to the center tap. It follows that during the negative
half-cycles while 𝐷2 conducts, the circuit behaves again as a half-wave rectifier. The
important point, however, is that the current through R always flows in the same
direction, and thus 𝑣𝑜 will be unipolar, as indicated in Figure (c).

(c)
21
Full-wave Rectifier
To find the PIV (peak inverse voltage) of the diodes in the full-wave rectifier circuit,
consider the situation during the positive half-cycles. Diode 𝐷1 is conducting, and 𝐷2 is
cut off.
The voltage at the cathode of 𝐷2 is 𝑣0 , and that at its anode is −𝑣𝑆 . Thus the reverse
voltage across 𝐷2 will be (𝑣0 + 𝑣𝑆 ), which will reach its maximum when 𝑣0 is at its peak
value of (𝑉𝑆 −𝑉𝛾 ), and 𝑣𝑆 is at its peak value of 𝑉𝑆 ; thus,

𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 2𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝛾

22
Full-wave Rectifier
For a sinusoidal input voltage, we can determine the output voltage versus time by
using the voltage transfer curve shown in Figure (b). When 𝑣𝑆 > 𝑉𝛾 , 𝐷1 is on and the
output voltage is 𝑣0 = 𝑣𝑆 − 𝑉𝛾 .

(b) voltage transfer characteristics

When 𝑣𝑆 is negative, then for 𝑣𝑆 < 𝑉𝛾 or −𝑣𝑆 > 𝑉𝛾 , 𝐷2 is on and the output voltage is
𝑣0 = −𝑣𝑆 − 𝑉𝛾 .
The corresponding input and output voltage signals are shown in (c). Since a
rectified output voltage occurs during both the positive and negative cycles of the
input signal, this circuit is called a full-wave rectifier.

(c) input and output waveforms

23
Full-wave Rectifier
An alternative implementation of the full-wave rectifier is shown in Figure (a). This
circuit, known as the bridge rectifier because of the similarity of its configuration to
that of the Wheatstone bridge.
The bridge rectifier requires four diodes as compared to two in the previous circuit.

The bridge rectifier circuit operates as follows:

During the positive half-cycles of the input voltage, 𝑣𝑆 is positive, and thus current is
conducted through diode 𝐷1 , resistor 𝑅, and diode 𝐷2 . Meanwhile, diodes 𝐷3 and 𝐷4
will be reverse biased.
Observe that there are two diodes in series in the conduction path, and thus 𝑣0 will
be lower than 𝑣𝑆 by two diode drops (compared to one drop in the circuit previously
discussed).

24
Full-wave Rectifier
Next, consider the situation during the negative half-cycles of the input voltage. The
secondary voltage 𝑣𝑆 will be negative, and thus −𝑣𝑆 will be positive, forcing current
through 𝐷3 , 𝑅, and 𝐷4 . Meanwhile, diodes 𝐷1 and 𝐷2 will be reverse biased.
The important point to note, though, is that during both half-cycles, current flows
through 𝑅 in the same direction (from right to left), and thus 𝑣0 will always be
positive, as indicated in Figure (b).
To determine the peak inverse voltage (PIV) of each diode, consider the circuit
during the positive half-cycles. The reverse voltage across 𝐷3 can be determined
from the loop formed by 𝐷3 , 𝑅, and 𝐷2 as
𝑣𝐷3 (reverse) = 𝑣0 + 𝑣𝐷2 (forward)
Thus the maximum value of 𝑣𝐷3 occurs at the peak of 𝑣0 and is given by
PIV = 𝑉𝑆 − 2𝑉𝛾 + 𝑉𝛾 = 𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝛾

𝑉𝛾 = 𝑉𝐷

25
26
27
Ex 3. Consider the rectifier circuit shown in Figure. Assume the input voltage is from
a 120 V (rms), 60 Hz ac source. The desired peak output voltage 𝑣𝑜 = 9𝑉, and the diode
cut-in voltage is assumed to be 𝑉𝛾 = 0.7𝑉. Compare voltages and the transformer turns
ratio in center tapped full-wave rectifier circuit and find the peak inverse voltage (PIV) of
a diode.

28
Ex 3

29
Ex 4. Consider the rectifier circuit shown in Figure. Assume the input voltage is
from a 120 V (rms), 60 Hz ac source. The desired peak output voltage 𝑣𝑜 = 9𝑉,
and the diode cut-in voltage is assumed to be 𝑉𝛾 = 0.7𝑉. Compare voltages and
the transformer turns ratio in bridge full wave rectifier circuit and find the peak
inverse voltage (PIV) of a diode.

30
Ex 4

31
Ex 5. The input signal voltage to the full-wave rectifier circuit in Figure is 𝑣𝐼 = 160
sin[2π(60)t] V. Assume Vγ = 0.7V for each diode.

(a) Determine the required turns ratio of the transformer to produce a peak
output voltage of 25 V.
(b) What must be the diode PIV rating for a peak output voltage of 25 V?

32
Ex 5.
𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝑉𝛾

𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 26.4 − 0.7

𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 25.7

33
Zener Diode Circuits
Regulator is required to obtain a very stable output.

• A voltage regulator is a circuit whose purpose is to

provide a constant dc voltage voltage in the face of
changes in their load current and in the system
power-supply voltage.
▪ The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode was nearly
constant over a wide range of reverse-bias currents
so it can be used as a voltage regulator.

Breakdown Voltage
When a reverse-bias voltage is applied to a p-n junction, the
electric field in the space charge region increases and
covalent bonds are broken so electron–hole pairs are
created. Electrons are swept into the n-region and holes are
swept into the p-region by the electric field, generating a large
reverse bias current. This phenomenon is called breakdown.

34
Zener Diode Circuits

The slope of the 𝐼– 𝑉 characteristics curve in

breakdown is quite large, so the incremental
(dynamic) resistance 𝑟𝑧 is small, typically in the
range of a few ohms or tens of ohms.
Zener diodes are fabricated with voltages 𝑉𝑍 in
the range of a few volts to a few hundered volts

35
Zener Diode Circuits- Ideal Voltage Reference Circuit

A Zener voltage regulator circuit is shown in the Figure below :

The output voltage should remain constant, even when the output load
resistance varies over a fairly wide range, and when the input voltage
varies over a specific range.

Initially, determine the proper input resistance 𝑅𝑖 . The resistance 𝑅𝑖 limits

the current through the Zener diode and drops the “excess” voltage
between 𝑉𝑃𝑆 and 𝑉𝑍

36
Zener Diode Circuits- Ideal Voltage Reference Circuit

determine the proper resistance 𝑅𝑖 ;

𝑉𝑃𝑆 − 𝑉𝑍 𝑉𝑃𝑆 − 𝑉𝑍
𝑅𝑖 = = (1)
𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝑍 + 𝐼𝐿 (assumption: Zener resistance is zero for
the ideal diode).
𝐼𝑍 Zener diode current is :
𝑉𝑃𝑆 − 𝑉𝑍
𝐼𝑍 = − 𝐼𝐿
𝑅𝑖
For proper operation of this circuit, the diode must remain in the breakdown region and
the power dissipation in the diode must not exceed its rated value. In other words:

I. 𝐼𝑍 is minimum when 𝐼𝐿 is maximum and 𝑉𝑃𝑆 is minimum

II. 𝐼𝑍 is maximum when 𝐼𝐿 is minimum and 𝑉𝑃𝑆 is maximum

37
Zener Diode Circuits- Ideal Voltage Reference Circuit
Apply I and II into 𝑅𝑖 (1) equation :

𝑉𝑃𝑆 𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑍
𝑅𝑖 = (2)
𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑉𝑃𝑆 𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑍 (3)

𝑅𝑖 =
𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Equate (2) and (3)

𝑉𝑃𝑆 𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑍 . 𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑃𝑆 𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑍 . 𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 (4)

Assume that the range of input voltage, the range of output load current, and the
Zener voltage are known so the Equation (4) contains two unknowns, 𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥 and
𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑖𝑛
As a minimum requirement, let us set the minimum Zener current to be one-tenth the
maximum Zener current, 𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.1𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥 and we can solve for 𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐼𝐿 𝑚𝑎𝑥 . 𝑉𝑃𝑆 𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑍 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑚𝑖𝑛 . 𝑉𝑃𝑆 𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑍

𝐼𝑍 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑉𝑃𝑆 𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 0.9𝑉𝑍 − 0.1𝑉𝑃𝑆 𝑚𝑎𝑥
38
Ex 6: Design a voltage regulator using the circuit in below. The voltage regulator is
to power a car radio at 𝑉𝐿 = 9𝑉 from an automobile battery whose voltage may vary
between 11 and 13.6 V. The current in the radio will vary between 0 (off ) to 100 mA
(full volume).

39
Ex 6

40
Ex 7: The Zener Diode regulator circuit is shown in below has an input voltage that
varies between 10 and 14 V, and a load resistance that varies between 𝑅𝐿 = 20 and
100Ω. Assume a 5.6V Zener Diode is used, assume 𝐼𝑍 (𝑚𝑖𝑛) = 0.1𝐼𝑍 (𝑚𝑎𝑥). Find the
value of 𝑅𝑖 required and the maximum power of the diode.

41
Ex 7

42
Ex 8:Consider the Zener Diode in the Figure. Assume parameter values
of 𝑉𝑍𝑂 = 5.6 𝑉(diode voltage when 𝐼𝑍 = 0) 𝑟𝑍 = 3Ω and 𝑅𝑖 = 50 Ω.
Determine 𝑉𝐿 , 𝐼𝐿 , 𝐼𝑍 and the power dissipated in the diode for
(a)𝑉𝑃𝑆 = 10𝑉, 𝑅𝐿 = ∞
(b) 𝑉𝑃𝑆 = 10𝑉, 𝑅𝐿 = 200Ω.

43
 𝑉𝑧
Ex 8

44