MODERN MOBILITY (21ME654) 6th SEMESTER OPEN ELECTIVE

Module-1 Mobility Systems

History of Automobile, Classification of Automobile w.r.t

Usage, Chassis, Body, Power Sources, capacity, main
components of Internal Combustion Engines and their Functions,
Modern Fuel supply system, Cooling System, Lubrication
System & Ignition System, Engine Management System
History of Automobile
Automobiles date back to 1672 with the invention of the steam-
powered vehicle, which led to the creation of the first steam-
powered automobile, built by Nicolas Cugnot in 1769.

Samuel Brown first tested the industrially applied internal

combustion engine in 1826. German inventor Carl Benz
patented his Benz-Motorwagen in 1886. He developed a
gasoline-powered vehicle and made several copies.

The 1901 Mercedes designed by Wilhelm Maybach and

Gottlieb Daimler for Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft, is the
first complete modern car in all essentials.
The thirty-five-horsepower engine weighed only fourteen pounds
per horsepower, and it achieved a top speed of fifty-three miles per
hour. It was followed by the Ford Model T, created by the Ford
Motor company in 1908, the first to be mass-produced on a moving
assembly line.
William Durant founded General Motors in 1908. This led to cars
becoming widely available in the market by the early 20th century.
Ford, General Motors, and Chrysler emerged as the leading
companies by 1920.
During the aftermath of the world war, production in Europe and
Asia soared to meet the growing demands. With the rise of Japan
as the leading automaker by 1980, the industry became a shared
global enterprise.
Notable European and Asian producers include companies like
BMW, Volkswagen, Toyota, Hyundai, and Honda.
Types or Classification of automobiles:
Automobiles can be classified into types based on various criteria. The
following are the classification of automobiles:
#1. Based on the purpose of the vehicle:
Automobiles are classified on the purpose of the vehicle depending on whether
the vehicle is used to carry passengers or used for transportation of goods or
USD for any special purpose.
1. Passenger vehicle – Car, bus, taxi, etc.
2. Commercial vehicle – Trucks, tempos, containers, etc.
3. Special purpose vehicle- Ambulance, fire brigade, police vehicle, etc.
#2. Based on the load-carrying capacity:
This classification is done on the basis of the load-carrying capacity of the
vehicle. This also implies classification based on the motor and body of the
vehicle.
4. Light motor vehicle (LMV) – Car, Jeep, Minivan, etc.
5. Medium motor vehicle (MMV) – Tempo, bus, mini truck, etc.
6. Heavy motor vehicle (HMV) – Truck, trailer, container, tractor, multi-axle
bus, etc.
#3. Based on the number of wheels:
The number of wheels used in a vehicle is also classified.
1. Two-wheeler – Scooter, Motorcycle, etc.
2. Three-wheeler – Autorickshaw.
3. Four-Wheeler – Car, jeep, minivan, tractor, etc.
4. Six-wheeler – Bus, mini truck, etc.
5. More than six wheels – Truck, trailer, container, multi-axle bus, etc
#4. Based on the fuel used in the vehicle:
The fuel used is a very important component in terms of the
classification of vehicles. Fuel plays a major role in the
performance and efficiency standards of the vehicle.
Petrol – The system which uses petrol is called the Spark ignition
system. The octane number of petrol decides the anti-knock,
performance, and efficiency factor. Generally, the octane numbers
available are 87, 89, and 91-93. Mostly used in passenger vehicles
and two-wheelers.
Diesel – The system is called a Compression ignition system. The cetane number
of diesel decides the compression and fuel needed for ignition. Generally, the
cetane numbers range from 45 to 55. Mostly used in commercial and heavy
vehicles.
CNG – Compressed natural gas in another form of fuel used as an alternative to
petrol. The advantage is that it produces less toxic emissions from the vehicle
and the disadvantage is that it reduces the performance of the vehicle as
compared to that of petrol. These are mostly used in public transportation
vehicles and passenger cars.
Electric – Electric vehicle is relatively a new technology used as an alternative
to combustible fuels. These vehicles use electricity as fuel from the high-
capacity battery.
Hydrogen – The hydrogen fuel cell is an upcoming invention in the automobile
industry which is currently in full swing research. It is expected to provide a
safer and more economical route for the automobile industry.
#5. Based on the transmission system of the vehicle:
Automobiles can be classified into three types based on the transmission
system. They are the following:
Manual transmission system – This system uses a frictional clutch attached
to the driving shaft. The linkage between the fictional clutch and flywheel is
used to clutch and declutch the transmission.
Automatic Transmission system – A torque converter is used to transmit
rotational energy in this system. The gear changes are controlled by the
computer systems in the automobile which uses planetary gears, clutches, and
brakes.
Semi-automatic transmission system – It can be referred to as a hybrid of
automatic and manual transmission systems. The input is manual and the
output is automated in this system, the only difference being the absence of a
manual clutch.
Continuously variable transmission (CVT) – In CVT transmission, the push
belt transfers torque from one pulley to another. This is used to smoothly
change the gears.
#6. Based on the power source of the vehicle:
The power supply of an automobile is an important factor and the classification of
power supply used in automobiles is the following:
Internal combustion engine (ICE) – As the name suggests, IC engines use
combustible fuel for power generation in the engine. It consists of parts such as
an intake valve, intake manifold, cylinder head, pistons, crankshaft, camshaft,
flywheel, exhaust manifold, exhaust valve, and spark plug (only in petrol
engines).
Electric battery (EV) – These vehicles use one or more electric motors for
propulsion instead of an IC engine. The electricity is supplied by the high voltage
batteries present in these vehicles. These vehicles are currently on a high rise in
the market as a solution to the rising pollution, global warming, depleting natural
resources, etc.
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (HFCV) – Hydrogen fuel cell is the next-gen
technolog that uses hydrogen as fuel. HFCV is considered a permanent
replacement for combustible fuels as hydrogen resources are available in
abundance. The reaction is hydrogen with oxygen is used to produce power
which is used to run the motor. The exhaust of the system is in the form of water
#7. Based on the suspension system of the vehicle:
The suspension system decides the load distribution and comfort level of the vehicle.
Vehicles are categorized on the basis of suspension systems as follows:
Independent Suspension system – In this type of system, only the wheel under load
adjusts its position and there is zero to little effect on the opposite wheel. It is generally
used for the front axle. Examples are Mac person strut, wishbone, etc.
Non-independent or rigid suspension system – In this type of system, when one
wheel is in contact with any bump or uneven road the other one will also change its
position and may tilt or move upwards or downwards. This is mostly used in heavy
vehicles.
Air suspension system – Airbags fed with air are used as shock absorbers in this type
of system. Compressed air under the pressure of around 5.6-7 kg/sq.m is used with the
help of the air compressor in the suspension system.

Pneumatic air suspension system- This system is an electrically controlled air

suspension system. It consists of an electronic control unit (ECU) that feeds and releases
the air pressure inside the airbags according to the bumps or uneven surfaces. It also
consists of a motor that runs the control unit and air compressor.
#8. Based on the wheel drive of the vehicle:
Wheel drive of a vehicle implies the axle of the vehicle which is used for the
driveshaft. The driver shaft transmits the power of the vehicle from the engine
to the wheels. These are classified as follows:
Front-wheel drive (FWD) – As the name suggests, the propeller shaft is
connected to the front axle and it’s used as the driver shaft of the vehicle. The
front wheels rotate and move the vehicle. Front-wheel drive has better traction
and efficiency than rear-wheel drive as the vehicle is more weighted at the
front.
Rear-wheel drive (RWD) – In rear-wheel drive, the propeller shaft is
connected to the rear axle and the rear wheels of the vehicle rotate. These types
of vehicles have better stability and cornering control as the front wheels are
used for the sole purpose of steering and it has less effect on the front wheels.
All-wheel drive (AWD) – In all-wheel drive, the propeller shaft is attached to
both the axles of the vehicle. All the wheels in the vehicle rotate with the power
distributed equally. These types of vehicles utilize the maximum power of the
engine.
#9. Based on the drive end of the vehicle:
Vehicles are also classified based on the position of the steering system. It consists of
two types:
Right-hand drive – The vehicles which have the steering system on the right side of
the car are right-hand drive vehicles. These vehicles have steering on the right and
move on the left side of the road.
Left-hand drive – The vehicles which have the steering system on the left side of
the car are left-hand drive vehicles. These vehicles have steering on the left and move
on the right side of the road.
#10. Based on the engine location of the vehicle:
The location of the engine in a vehicle is different in various vehicles. These are
categorized as follows:
Front engine – In this system, the engine is located at the front end of the vehicle
over or ahead of the front axle. These vehicles are weighted at the front end.
Mid-engine – In this system, the engine is located near the rear end of the vehicle
but forward of the rear axle. These vehicles have weight evenly distributed.
Rear engine – In this system, the engine is located beyond the rear axle. These are
Main components of Internal Combustion Engines and their
Functions
MAIN COMPONENTS OF AN I.C. ENGINE
1. Cylinders
2. Piston
3. Connecting rod
4. Crank shaft
5. Valves and valve actuating mechanisms
Basic Engine Terminology:
Top dead centre (TDC): When the piston is at its top most position
i.e., the position closest to cylinder head, it is called top dead centre.
Bottom dead centre (BDC): When the piston is at its lowest position
i.e., the position farthest from the cylinder head, it is called bottom
dead centre.
Bore: The 'Bore' is referred to the diameter of engine cylinder. It is
denoted by 'D'. Stroke length or stroke: The distance travelled by the
piston between TDC and BDC is called stroke of the piston and is
denoted by 'L'.
Clearance volume: When the piston is in TDC position the cylinder
volume above it, is called clearance volume and is denoted by 'Vc'.
Swept volume or piston displacement: The volume swept by piston while
moving from TDC to BDC is called swept volume. It is denoted by , Vs .
Compression ratio: It is the ratio of volume above the piston at BDC to the
volume above the piston at TDC. It is the ratio of total volume of the
cylinder (Vs + Vc), to the clearance volume. It is denoted by ‘r’ For Petrol
engines, it ranges from 8 to 12. For diesel engines, it ranges from 15 to 24
Mean effective pressure: As piston performs power stroke, cylinder
pressure decreases. Thus it is required to refer an average effective pressure
throughout the whole power stroke. It is expressed in bars. Power: It is the
work done in a given period of time. More power is required to do the same
amount of work in a lesser time.
Indicated Power (I.P.): The power developed within the engine
cylinders is called indicated power. It is expressed in kilowatts
(kW). It is given by area under engine indicator diagram
Brake Power (B.P.): This is the actual power available at the
crank shaft. The indicated power minus various power losses in
the engine like friction and pumping losses in the engine, gives
Brake power. It is measured by using a Dynamometer and is
expressed in kilowatts (kW).
Engine torque: It is the force of rotation acting about the crank
shaft axis at any given instant of time
CYLINDERS
The cylinder is the main body of an engine in which piston reciprocates to
develop power. It has to with stand very high pressure and temperature (around
2800°C). A cylinder block is one which houses the engine cylinders. If cylinder
block and crank case are made integral, then the construction is called 'Mono
block'. The cylinder material should be such that it should retain strength at higher
temperatures, should be good conductor of heat and should resist rapid wear and
tear due to reciprocating action of the piston. Generally, cast iron is used. For
heavy duty engines alloy steels are used. For cooling water circulation, passages
are provided around the cylinders. Cylinder block also carries lubrication oil to
various components through drilled passages. At the lower end of cylinder block,
crank case is made integral with the block. At the top, cylinder block is attached
with the cylinder head. It houses inlet and exhaust valves. Besides, other parts like
timing gear, water pump, ignition distributor, fly wheel, fuel pump, etc., are also
attached to it.
PISTON:
The piston is a reciprocating part of the
engine and converts the combustion
pressure in the cylinder to a force on the
crank shaft. Pistons are slightly smaller
in diameter than the cylinder bore. The
space and is called "clearance". This
'clearance' is necessary to provide space
for a film of lubricant. Pistons are made
of aluminium alloys, cast steel, cast iron
or chrome nickel.
Aluminium alloy pistons are used in
modern automobiles
Functions
1. It forms a seal within the cylinder to avoid entry of high-pressure gases from
combustion chamber into crank
2. It transmits the force of explosion to the crank
3. It acts as a bearing for the gudgeon pin
A typical I.C. engine piston is as shown in figure. The piston almost has the shape
of an Inverted bucket. The top portion of the piston is called head or crown. In
some engines, pistons may be specially designed to form desired shape of the
combustion chamber. At the piston top, few grooves are cut to accommodate the
piston rings and the bands left between the grooves are known as "Lands". They
support the rings against gas pressure. The portion below rings is called piston
skirt. The skirt is provided with bosses on the inside to support the piston pin
The Aluminium alloy pistons have the following advantages over cast iron pistons.

1.Lighter in weight, allowing higher rpm. [It is 3 times lighter than C.I. piston
which is desirable from inertia point of view].

2.It has higher thermal conductivity allowing the use of higher compression ratio.

The aluminium alloy pistons have the disadvantages like.

1.It is not as strong as cast iron; hence thicker sections have to be used.

2.Aluminium alloy is soft, fine particles of lubricating oil become embedded in it.
It causes a sort of grinding.

3.It causes a sort of grinding or abrasion of the cylinder walls thus decreases
cylinder life.

4.The main drawback of using aluminium alloy pistons with cast iron cylinders is
their unequal coefficient of expansion which causes engine slap.
Piston rings:

Piston rings are located towards the top of the piston. The top two piston rings are
called compression rings and are designed to maintain cylinder pressure. The
bottom ring is called oil ring, (may be 1 or 2 in number) they scrape the excess oil
from the cylinder walls and return it through slots to the piston ring grooves. A
properly constructed and fitted ring will rub against the cylinder wall with good
contact all around the cylinder. The ring will ride in grooves that are cut into the
piston head.
The material generally used for piston rings is fine grained alloy cast
iron containing silicon and manganese. It has good heat resisting
qualities. Rings with molybdenum filled face have also been
introduced recently. Alloy steels are also used. The number of rings
vary depending on the engine design. It varies from two to four.

Generally, the ring is cast and machined and put in position in the ring
grooves. It exerts uniform pressure against the cylinder walls. A gap is
to be cut at the ends so that while inserting the ring, it can be
expanded, slipped over the piston head and released in to the ring
groove. The gap is almost closed when the piston is inside the
cylinder.
Functions:

1.It forms a seal so that high pressure gases from the combustion
chamber will not escape into the crank case.

2.It provides easy passage for heat flow from piston crown to the
cylinder walls.

3.It maintains enough lubrication oil cylinder walls throughout the

stroke length. This reduces ring and cylinder wear. The thickness of
oil film is to be controlled and the oil should not go up into the
combustion chamber where it would burn and produces carbon
deposits
Connecting rod

The connecting rods are used to connect pistons to the crank shaft. The upper end
of rod oscillates (swing back and forth) while the lower and or big end rotates
(turns). It converts reciprocating motion of the piston in to rotary motion of the
crank shaft.. Connecting rods are manufactured by casting and forging processes.
The rod has an I-beam cross section to provide maximum rigidity with minimum
weight. Generally, rods are made by drop forging of steel or duralumin and also
cast from malleable cast iron.
CRANK SHAFT

The crank shaft provides a constant turning force to the wheels. It receives the
power from connecting rods and subsequently transmits to the wheels. Crank
shafts are made of alloy steel or cast iron
Chassis Frame
Chassis frame is the basic frame work of the automobile. It supports
all the parts of the automobile attached to it. It is made of drop forged
steel. All the parts related to automobiles are attached to it only. All
the systems related to automobile like powerplant, transmission,
steering, suspension, braking system etc are attached to and supported
by it only.
Layout of Chassis and its main components
“Chassis” a French term which means the complete Automobiles
without Body and it includes all the systems like power plant,
transmission, steering, suspension , wheels tyres , auto electric
system etc. without body. If Body is also attached to it them it is
 Front spring Frame Shackel
Shackle R e a r Spring

D u m b Iron Engine
Radiator
Gear box Clutch
Propeller Rear Axle

Shaft

Side members Horizontal Member P e t r o l Tank

The Functions of the Chassis frame
1.To carryall the stationary loads attached to it and loads of passenger and cargo carried
in it .
2.To withstand torsional vibration caused by the movement of the vehicle
3.To withstand the centrifugal force caused by cornering of the vehicle
4.To control the vibration caused by the running of the vehicle
5.To withstand bending stresses due to rise and fall of the front and rear axles.
Types of Chassis frame
There are different types of chassis frame sections
1.Channel section 2.Box section 3Tubular section
The conventional frame is also known as Non-load carrying frame. In this types of
frame , the loads on the vehicle are transferred to the suspension by the frame
which is the main skeleton of the vehicle.
The channel section is used in long members and box section in short members.
Tubular section is used now-a-days is three wheelers, scooters, matadors and
pickup vans.
The frames should be strong enough to bear load while sudden brakes and
accidents.
Different Bodies used in Automobiles
The automobiles bodies are designed according to the requirement of
the vehicle. According to design and requirement of the vehicle ,
there are different types of Automobiles bodies. Some of them are
listed as below :
Car ,Straight truck or Punjab truck body, Truck with half body
Platform type truck, Tractor, Tractor with articulated trailer, Tanker
Bus, Dumper truck, Delivery van, Station wagon, Pick up van, Jeep
Long wheel base truck etc
Requirement of Bodies for various types of vehicles
According to requirement, automobile bodies are classified mainly
into different types namely private vehicle, commercial
vehicle, fleet transport vehicle, passenger transport vehicle,
Ambulances vehicle used for transport of Army personal,
Ammunition etc., different types of tanker vehicle etc. If it is a
private vehicle, the vehicle is used for luxury personal travelling,
private cargo transport etc, namely car, minivan, Omni bus, matador
power source of the vehicle:
The power supply of an automobile is an important factor and the classification
of power supply used in automobiles is the following:
Internal combustion engine (ICE) – As the name suggests, IC engines use
combustible fuel for power generation in the engine. It consists of parts such as
an intake valve, intake manifold, cylinder head, pistons, crankshaft, camshaft,
flywheel, exhaust manifold, exhaust valve, and spark plug (only in petrol
engines).
Electric battery (EV) – These vehicles use one or more electric motors for
propulsion instead of an IC engine. The electricity is supplied by the high
voltage batteries present in these vehicles. These vehicles are currently on a
high rise in the market as a solution to the rising pollution, global warming,
depleting natural resources, etc.
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicle (HFCV) – Hydrogen fuel cell is the next-gen
technology that uses hydrogen as fuel. HFCV is considered a permanent
replacement for combustible fuels as hydrogen resources are available in
abundance. The reaction is hydrogen with oxygen is used to produce power
which is used to run the motor. The exhaust of the system is in the form of water
Cubic capacity or engine capacity (CC):
The displacement volume or Swept volume of a cylinder multiplied
by number of cylinders in an engine will give the cubic capacity or
the engine capacity (CC).
For example, if there are K cylinders in an engine, then Cubic
capacity (CC) = Vs X K
FUELS, FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEMS FOR SI AND CI
ENGINES
Conventional fuels
Conventional fuel used in the automobiles are gasoline and diesel
fuel.
Gasoline or Petrol
 It is a mixture of large number of hydrocarbons
 It is lightest and most volatile liquid mainly used as motor fuel
 It is obtained by fractional distillation from crude oil
 Calorific value:48000 kJ/k
Diesel
 The liquid fuel distilled after gasoline and kerosene
 These fuels are used in diesel engines
 It evaporates slowly when compared to petrol as it is heavier
 Calorific value:44800 kJ/kg
Alternative fuels
 Biodiesel is a renewable fuel that can be manufactured from
vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled cooking grease for use in
diesel vehicles.
 Hydrogen is a potentially emissions- free alternative fuel that
can be produced from domestic resources for use in fuel cell
vehicles.
 Natural gas is a domestically abundant gaseous fuel that can have
significant fuel cost advantages over gasoline and diesel fuel.
 Ethanol is a widely used renewable fuel made from corn and
other plant materials. It is blended with gasoline for use in
vehicles.
Fuel supply system in SI engine
The main purpose of the fuel feed system is to control the fuel supply to the
engine. To supply the fuel from the fuel tank to the engine cylinders,
manufacturers use the following methods in case of a petrol engine.
Basic fuel supply system with petrol engine consists of following components:

 Fuel tank

 Fuel pump

 Fuel lines

 Air cleaner

 Fuel filter

 Carburetor

 Inlet manifold

 Supply and return pipelines

Types of Fuel Supply System in Petrol Engine:

The following are the types of systems that have been used for the supply of
fuel from the fuel tank to the engine cylinder.
 Gravity system

 Pressure system

 Pump system

 Fuel Injection System

Gravity system, pressure system, and pump system make use of the carburettor
whereas the fuel injection system does not use carburettor for the Air/Fuel
supply. The Gravity system is confined to two-wheelers only whereas the
Pressure and the Vacuum systems are almost obsolete now. The Pump system
is widely used in automobiles and due to certain advantages, the usage of the
Fuel injection system is rapidly increasing in modern vehicles.
Gravity system

In this system, the fuel tank is mounted at the highest position from where the
fuel drops into the carburetor float chamber by gravity. The system is very
simple and cheap.
Pump system

In this system, a steel pipe is used to carry petrol from the
fuel tank to the fuel pump, which pumps it into the float
chamber of the carburettor through a flexible pipe.
The mechanical pump or electronic pump is used.
Fuel Injection (FI) System

•Modern/present-day vehicles use petrol injection system which

replaced the carburetor. The injector nozzle atomizes the fuel and
forces it into the air stream. Newer generation engines use separate
injector for each cylinder.
•The air-fuel mixture for different load and speed conditions is
controlled either mechanically or electronically. Hence, this makes
the fuel system more accurate.
Carburetor
A carburetor is a device used by an internal combustion engine to
control and mix air and fuel entering the engine.
Working of simple carburetor
A simple carburetor consists of different parts such as the float
chamber, main fuel jet, venturi, jet tube, and throttle valve. Where
there is a float in the float chamber. With the help of a fuel pump,
fuel is supplied to the float chamber from the fuel tank through the
strainer.
Working of a simple carburetor:
•As we know, there is a float chamber in a simple carburetor that is
open to the atmosphere. It keeps atmospheric pressure in the float
chamber.
•Fuel from the external fuel tank is supplied to the float chamber with
the help of the fuel pump. This fuel from the fuel tank is filtered using
the strainer which removes any solid particles from the fuel.
•Now fuel from the float chamber is supplied to the main nozzle which
is a part of the jet tube. This flow of fuel from the float chamber to the
main nozzle is carried out by the main fuel jet.
•The engine sucks air from the atmosphere through the choke valve.
This air passes through the venturi, it causes a reduction of the area of a
cross-section at the throat of venturi.
•Due to this, the pressure at the main nozzle decreases and the velocity
of air increases.
•This difference in pressure-induced at the float chamber and the main
nozzle causes the mixture of fuel and incoming atmospheric air.
Then the air fuel mixture enters to the engine cylinder during suction
Ignition system
The purpose of the ignition system is to generate a very high
voltage from the battery, and to send this to each sparkplug in
turn, igniting the fuel-air mixture in the engine 's combustion
chambers
Firing order
The firing order is the sequence of power delivery of each
cylinder in a multi-cylinder reciprocating engine. This is achieved
by sparking of the spark plugs in a gasoline engine in the correct
order, or by the sequence of fuel injection in a diesel engine.
1-3-2 for three-cylinder engine
1-3-4-2 for four-cylinderengine
1-5-3-6-2-4 for six-cylinder
engine
Battery or Coil Ignition system
A battery ignition system is a type of ignition system used in a
spark-ignition engine for powering the spark plug so that spark
can be generated to burn the air-fuel mixture in the combustion
chamber. The ignition system powered by a 6- or 12-volt battery
charged by the engine-driven generator (alternator). This battery
supplies electricity to the ignition system, thus, it’s named battery
ignition system. There are two basic circuits in this system, they
are primary and secondary circuits. The battery, primary winding
of the ignition coil, condenser and the contact breaker form the
primary circuit. The secondary winding of the ignition coil,
distributor and the sparkplugs forms the secondary circuit.
When the ignition switch is in ON position, the current flows in the
primary circuit will grow exponentially during the make period of the
contact breaker. The electromagnetic energy on account of this buildup
of current in the primary circuit is stored in the laminated iron core of
the ignition coil. As the contact breaker points open, the magnetic field
built up by the growth of the current collapses and the energy stored
during the make period is projected into the secondary circuit. This
energy suddenly passed onto the secondary winding, inducing an
“emf”. As the break is made very sharp, the induced emf is very large
being proportional to the change of flux in the winding. As a result, a
sudden voltage surge of very high amplitude is produced in the
secondary winding, causing spark to at the sparkplugs. The distributor
Magneto Ignition system
Figure shows the magneto ignition system, which consists of rotating magnet,
armature, primary winding, secondary winding, contact breaker, condenser,
distributor and spark plugs. The rotating magnet produces and supplies the current
in the primary winding. When the ignition switch is in ON position, the current
flows in the primary circuit will grow exponentially during the make period of the
contact breaker. The electromagnetic energy on account of this build up of current
in the primary circuit is stored in the laminated iron core of the ignition coil. As the
contact breaker points open, the magnetic field built up by the growth of the current
collapses and the energy stored during the make period is projected into the
secondary circuit. This energy suddenly passed onto the secondary winding,
inducing an “e m f”. As the break is made very sharp, the induced e m f is very
large being proportional to the change of flux in the winding. As a result, a sudden
voltage surge of very high amplitude is produced in the secondary winding, causing
spark to at the sparkplugs. The distributor distributes the high voltage to each
sparkplug as per firing order.
Electronic Ignition system
When the armature tooth moves away from the pickup coil, a
voltage signal is not generated and due to this, the timing circuit
inside the ignition module turns ON and thereby the current will
flow again into the circuit.

Due to the continuous make and break of the current, a magnetic

field is generated in the ignition coil. Due to the magnetic field, an
electromotive force(EMF) is induced in the secondary winding
causing the voltage to increase up to 50,000 volts.
This high voltage is then transferred to the distributor. The rotor
inside the distributor rotates according to the ignition timing. When
the rotor comes exactly in front of the distributor point, the voltage
jumps due to the air gap from the rotor to the point.
A high voltage is then transferred from the distributor to the
spark plug terminal via a high tension cable. A voltage
difference is generated between the central electrode and the
ground electrode. The voltage continues to transfer through the
central electrode which is sealed using the insulator.

When the voltage exceeds the dielectric strength of the gases

between these electrodes, the gases are ionized. Due to
ionization, gas becomes a conductor and allows the current to
flow through the gap and thus, the spark is finally produced.
ENGINE COOLING: In the process of converting thermal energy in to
mechanical work, as a result of combustion, high temperatures are
produced. This heat is transferred to the cylinder walls, piston and
valves. Unless these parts are adequately cooled, the engine will be
damaged. A part of total fuel energy is converted in to mechanical work
and rest is rejected in the form of
1. Heat from engine surface by combined action of conduction,
convection and radiation.
2. Heat lost to exhaust.
3. Heat rejected in to the coolant.
In general, engine converts 30 percent of total fuel energy in to useful
work, 30 percent is lost in exhaust heat and cooling system has to
remove 30 percent heat energy to maintain engine temperature. Some
energy lost occurs in friction, compression etc. The cooling system
maintains temperature of engine components within certain limits and
increases engine performance. Cooling beyond optimum limits is not
desirable as it decreases the overall efficiency due to following reasons.
1.More lost of heat to cylinder walls causes decrease, in thermal efficiency
2.Combustion efficiency decreases due to less evaporation of fuel at lower
temperature.
3. At lower temperature, viscosity of lubricant increases and results in more
frictional losses. This reduces overall efficiency.
The engine cooling is necessary due to following reasons.
1.As engine temperature increases, the strength of materials used for various
engine components decreases. As an example, in water cooled engines the
temperature of cylinder head should not exceed 270°C, and for air cooled
engines, uses light alloys, the temperature should not exceed 200°C.
2. The lubricating oil used in the engine also decides the maximum temperature
that can be used. For different lubricating oils, this temperature range varies
from 160°C to 200°C. If the engine temperature exceeds this limit, it may
deteriorates the lubricating oil or evaporate and burn to cause piston and
cylinder damage. Over heating results in piston seizing also.
3. High cylinder head temperature result in loss of volumetric efficiency and
reduces power output.
4. High engine temperature may cause pre ignition and detonation.
METHODS OF COOLING 1.Air cooling 2.Water cooling
1) Air Cooling: Here, the air stream flows continuously over the heated metal surface
and the rate of heat dissipation depends on surface area of metal, air mass flow rate,
thermal conductivity of metal, temperature difference between metal surface and air.
To increase the effectiveness, the metal surface area which is in contact with air
should be increased. This is done by providing fins over cylinder barrels. The fins
may be cast integral with the cylinder or may be attached separately.
Advantages:1.Absence of radiator cooling jackets and
coolant reduces weight of the system.
2.Air cooled engines are useful in extreme climates, where
water may freeze.
3.These engines warm up earlier than water cooled engines.
4.Easy maintenance as there is no leakage problem.
Disadvantages:
1.These are noisier, because of absence of cooling water which acts as sound
insulator.
2.Heat transfer co-efficient for air is less. Hence less efficient cooling and results in
decrease of highest useful compression ratio.
2) Water Cooling: In these systems, the water jackets surrounds
engine cylinders and cooling water flows through these jackets. Heat is
conducted through the cylinder walls to the water in the jackets which
removes the excess heat as it circulates through the radiator.
Water cooling systems are classified into two types.
a. Thermosyphon system.
b. Pump circulation system.
(a) Thermosyphon system:
In this system the engine is connected to radiator through flexible hoses. The
difference in densities of hot and cold regions of cooling water causes water
circulation between engine and radiator. The water in circulation absorbs heat from
engine cylinder and hence cool it. The heat from the water is then dissipated into
atmosphere through the radiator by conduction and convection. This cools the
water which is required for further circulation. Sometimes fans are used behind the
radiator to increase the air mass flow rate and- hence to increase cooling efficiency.
(b) Pump circulation system: This system is similar to thermo
syphon system explained above.
•This principle is similar to thermo siphon system but the heat
dissipated by the engine is so large that it is not possible to cool the
engine by thermo siphon principle
•To enable faster cooling , a pump is introduced to the system between
the radiator and the engine block
•When the pump rotates water is circulated with some force, therefore
heat of the engine block is removed quickly without any difficulty.
Advantage of Pump circulating
(a)No need to place the radiator header tank above the engine level, as
water circulation is effected by pump.
(b)Radiator may be placed on the side or on the rear, if necessary.
(c)Cooling water circulation is proportional to both load and speed.
(d)Because of efficient cooling, water jacket size can be reduced. This
results in overall decrease in engine size.
THERMOSTAT VALVES

It is to be noted that the cooling beyond optimum limits is not desirable as it decreases the
overall efficiency of the engine. A thermostat is used to regulate the rate of cooling. It
keeps the cooling water temperature at a predetermined value.

Two types of thermostats are used in automobiles.

1.Bellows type

2.Wax or hydrostatic type

This thermostat consists of metallic bellows filled with some volatile liquids like alcohol,
acetone, ether etc., whose boiling temperature ranges between 70-85°C. One end of bellows
contains a valve and to the other end a frame is attached' which fits in to the cooling passage.
The thermostat is fitted in the water hose pipe at the engine outlet. After the engine has started,
cooling system should not operate during warming up duration~ that engine warms up early.
During this warming up period, the liquid inside the bellows has not yet changed its state and
hence does not exert any pressure on the valve. Therefore, the valve remains in closed
If the temperature of the cooling water exceeds a pre-determined as 80°C the liquid
inside the bellows. Vaporizes and exerts a pressure on the valve. The valve opens
and allows water circulation through the radiator, as water temperature rises, valve
opens gradually, thus controls the flow of water through the radiator according to
engine cooling requirement
Wax thermostat:
It is also known as Dole thermostat.
This thermostat is more reliable to
operate within the specified temperature
range and is not sensitive to pressure variations.
The heat carried by the coolant is transmitted to the copper loaded wax having
high thermal expansion coefficient.
The expansion of copper loaded wax makes the rubber plug to contract against
the plunger and hence exerts a force on it in upward direction. This makes the
plunger to move upward and opens a valve in the thermostat (Not shown). This
allows the coolant to flow through the radiator.
 ENGINE LUBRICATION

Lubrication is the most important phase of vehicle maintenance. Without lubrication,

engine cannot run smoothly even a few minutes. Inadequate lubrication results in
engine troubles like scored cylinders, burned out bearings, misfiring cylinders, dirty
spark plugs, stuck piston rings, engine deposits and sludge and more fuel consumption.

Dry or solid friction is a result of direct contact between two metallic surfaces or due to
inter locking of irregularities on metal surfaces, produces lot of heat and causes wear of
the metal surface

Hydrodynamic lubrication means, introduction of lubricating oil between two surfaces.

There is no physical contact between them and only resistance to motion is resistance
offered by the oil itself.
In boundary lubrication, the introduction of lubricant between surfaces will not cause
complete separation between them. The surfaces touch at their high spots. Boundary
lubrication exist in piston rings and valve train
 OBJECTS OF LUBRICATION

The main objects of lubrication are (a) It reduces power loss by minimizing friction between
moving parts.
(b) Decreases wear and tear of the moving components. The lubrication also serves other
purposes like.

1.Cooling effect: The lubricant absorbs heat from hot moving parts and dissipates it to the
surrounding air through the crank case.

2.Cushioning effect: The lubricant serves as a good cushion against shocks present in the
engine. For example, instant combustion causes sudden pressure rise and the resultant shock goes
to the bearings through piston, piston pin and connecting rod. Then the lubricant present in the
main bearings absorbs this shock.

3.To act as cleaning agent: As lubricating oil circulates, it absorbs so many impurities and oil
may be further purified by filtration. Ex.: oil dissolves carbon particles during its circulation.

4.Sealing action: It maintains an effective seal on the piston rings and avoids entry of high
pressure gases into the crank case.
ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

In an automobile engine, various systems adopted for lubrication are classified in to

1.Petrol-oil system (Mist lubrication). 2.Wet sump system.(a)Splash lubrication
b) Pressure feed lubrication 3.Dry sump system
1.Petro-oil System: In this method some amount of lubricating oil is directly mixed
with the petrol. i.e., about 25 to 30ml. of oil mixes with one litre of petrol. If oil is less,
it causes damage to the engine. If addition of oil is more, there may be excessive
carbon deposits in the cylinder head and produces poor emissions. This method is used
in scooter and motor cycles [two-stroke engines].
2.Wet Sump System: In this system, the crank case contains an oil pan or sump that
serves as the oil supply or reservoir tank. It also serves as the oil cooler. Oil from the
cylinders and bearings flows by gravity back into the wet sump from where it is
pumped and recirculated to the engine lubricating system. The wet sump system is
again classified into a) Splash lubrication system. b)Pressure feed system. c)Semi
(a)Splash Lubrication System: It is the cheapest method of lubrication and was
used in early motor cycles. The lower end of the connecting rod consists of a scoop
like structure as in the figure. The oil is stored in the oil trough (being delivered
from the crank case oil sump).When the engine runs, the connecting rod oscillates
and the scoop takes the oil from oil trough and splashes on to the cylinder walls
each time when it passes through BDC position. This lubricates engine walls,
gudgeon pin, main crank shaft bearings, big end bearings etc. The oil dripping
from the cylinder walls, collects in the tank where it is cooled by air flow.
(b) Pressure Feed System: This system is most commonly used in modern car engines. In
this system, the oil forces oil under pressure to the main bearings, connecting rod and cam
shaft bearings and also to the timing gears. Drilled assuages in the crank shaft carry oil from
the main bearings to the connecting rod bearings. The cylinder walls, piston pin, piston and
piston rings are lubricated by oil spray from the connecting rod and crank shaft. For the cam
shaft and timing gears, there is a separate oil line from the main oil gallery. The basic
components of the wet lubricating system are pump, strainer, pressure regulator, filter etc.
3.Dry Sump Lubricating System:
In this system, two pumps are used. The ump 'A' is called scavenging pump and is
located in the crank case portion as in figure. The oil from this pump is carne to an
external tank i.e., reservoir. The pressure urn '8' urn s the oil through filter to the
cylinder and bearings. Oil dripping from cylinder and bearings in to the sump is again
removed by scavenging pump (sump pump), which supplies oil to the reservoir. As the
capacity of sump pump is greater than oil pump, oil will not be accumulated in the
engine base. The oil pump draws oil from the supply tank and delivers it under pressure
to the engine bearings and oil pressure of 400- 500 kpa is maintained in main and big
end bearings. A pressure of about 50-100 kpa is maintained in timing gears and cam
shaft bearings etc. This system is suitable for lubricating sport cars, jeeps etc.
Engine Management System (EMS)
Engine Management System (EMS) comprises of Electronic Control Unit
(ECU), sensors, actuators and control algorithms that determine the
performance of the Engine as a whole and as part of the vehicle

The Electronic Control Unit consist of a 32-bit microprocessor with peripheral

devices like ignition driver and I/O drivers. Microprocessor controls the
injection parameters as well as some of the vehicle related outputs such as Fan,
AC drivability in gears, variable turbine turbocharger, EGR etc. The ECU
receives input from various sensors located on the engine and the vehicle, and
decides the injection quantity, injection timing, number of injections best suited
for the engine to work with maximum efficiency and safety. It is the ‘Brain’ of
the Engine Management System.
Being the most important component of the Engine management system, ECU
apart from ensuring the optimum working of the Vehicle, also keeps an eye on
the working of the sensors and actuators. Whenever a malfunction/fault occurs in
the component or the system the ECU alerts the user by glowing MIL indicator
on instrument cluster. ECU also does the following:

 Stores a DTC in its memory (indicates the faulty component/system).

 Stores a context frame (list of parameters indicating the operating condition

during the fault generation) in its memory.

When the malfunction poses a threat to the vehicle, the ECU with its control
algorithms operates the vehicle in Limp Home Mode (safe mode). This protects
the component from damage with some degradation in performance of the
vehicle.