THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Functions of the Nervous System

1. Sensory input- gather information
○ Sensory receptors- monitor changes/ receives sensory input
○ Stimuli- changes
2. Integration- nervous system processes and interprets sensory input and decides
whether action is needed
3. Motor output- a response, or effect that activates the muscles or glands

Nervous system classifications are based on:

● Structural classification
○ Central Nervous system
■ Organs:
● Brain
● Spinal cord
■ Function:
● Integration; command center
● Interprets incoming sensory information
● Issues outgoing instruction
○ Peripheral nervous system
■ Includes the nerves:
● Spinal nerves: carry impulses to and from the spinal cord
● Cranial nerves- carry impulses to and from the brain
■ Functions:
● Serve as communication lines
● Functional classification
○ Sensory (afferent) division
■ Nerve fibers that carry information to the Central nervous system
● 2 types of nerve fibers:
○ Somatic sensory fibers- carry information from the
skin, skeletal muscles, joints
○ Visceral sensory fibers- carry information from visceral
organs
○ Motor (efferent) division
■ Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system
to the effector organs (muscles and glands)
■ 2 subdivisions:
● Somatic nervous system = voluntary
● Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
○ Divided into:
■ Sympathetic nervous system (Thoracolumbar)
= “fight or flight”. Releases norepinephrine
● Response to unusual stimulus when
stressed
● “E division” - exercise, excitement,
emergency, embarassment
 ■ Parasympathetic nervous system
(Craniosacral division) = “rest and digest”.
Releases acetylcholine
● “Housekeeping activities”
● Conserves energy
● Maintains everyday functions
● D division- digestion, defecation, diuresis

Nervous tissue
● Made up of 2 principal cell types:
○ Supporting cells: - unable to conduct nerve impulses
■ Neuroglia
● support cells grouped together
● General functions:
○ Support
○ Insulate
○ Protect neurons
■ CNS Glial cells:
● Astrocytes
○ Brace and anchor neurons to blood capillaries
○ Protect neurons from harmful substances in blood
○ Control the chemical environment of the brain
● Microglia
○ Spiderlike phagocytes that defend CNS cells
○ Monitor health of nearby neurons
○ Dispose of debris
● Ependymal cells
○ Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
○ Assist with circulation of cerebrospinal fluid
● Oligodendrocytes (no neurilemma)
○ Wrap around nerve fibers in the central nervous system
○ Produce myelin sheaths around CNS nerve fibers
■ PNS glial cells:
● Schwann cells
○ Form myelin sheath around nerve fibers
○ Neurilemma- part of the Schwann cell external to the
myelin sheath
● Satellite cells
○ Protect and cushion neuron cell bodies

○ Neurons = nerve cells

■ Cells specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses)
■ Major regions of all neurons:
● Cell body- nucleus and metabolic center of the cell
○ Contains the:
■ Nucleus with large nucleolus
■ Nissl bodies -Rough ER
 ■ Neurofibril-intermediate filaments that maintain
cell shape
● Processes- fibers that extend from the cell body
○ Dendrites- conduct impulses toward the cell body (1
neuron=100 dendrites)
○ Axons- conduct impulses away from the cell body (1
neuron=1 axon)
■ Axon terminals- end part of axons which
contain vesicles within neurotransmitters
○ Synaptic cleft- gap between axon terminals and the
next neuron
○ Synapse- functional junction between nerves where a
nerve impulse is transmitted
○ Myelin
■ White, fatty material covering axons
■ Protects and insulate fibers
■ Speeds nerve impulse transmission
○ Myelin sheaths
■ Formed by schwann cells and oligodendrocytes
■ Nodes of Ranvier- gaps in myelin sheath along
the axon
■ Terminology:
● Nuclei- clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
● Ganglia- collections of cell bodies outside the CNS in the PNS
● Tracts- bundle of nerve fibers in the CNS
● Nerves- bundle of nerve fibers in the PNS
● White matter- collection of myelinated fibers (tracts)
● Gray matter- mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies
■ Functional classification
● Sensory (afferent) neurons
○ Receptors:
■ Free nerve endings- pain and temperature
receptors
■ Meissner’s corpuscle- touch receptor
■ Lamellar corpuscle- deep pressure receptor
■ Golgi Tendon organ- proprioceptor
■ Muscle spindle- proprioceptor
● Motor (efferent) neurons
● Interneurons (association neurons)
○ Cell bodies located in the CNS
○ Connect sensory and motor neurons
■ Structural classification- based on the number of processes
extending from the cell body:
● Multipolar neurons
○ many extensions from the cell body
○ All motor and interneurons are multipolar
○ Most common structural type
● Bipolar neurons
 ○ One axon and one dendrite
○ Located in special sense organs (nose and eye)
○ Rare in adults
● Unipolar neurons
○ Short single process leaving the cell body
○ Conduct impulses both toward and away from the cell
body
■ Functional properties:
● Irritability - ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it to a
nerve impulse
● Conductivity- the ability to transmit the impulse to other
neurons, muscles, or glands
■ Electrical conditions of a resting neuron’s membrane:
● The plasma membrane at rest is inactive (polarized)
● Fewer positive ions (more negative) are inside the neuron’s
plasma membrane than outside
○ K + is the major positive ion inside the cell
○ Na+ is the major positive ion outside the cell
■ (action potential, polarization, transmission of signals) -pg 51-74
■ Reflexes
● Rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli
● Reflex arcs- neural pathways where reflexes occur
○ 5 elements:
■ Sensory receptor
■ Sensory neuron
■ Integration center (CNS)
■ Motor neuron- carries messages to an effector
■ Effector organ
○ Types:
■ Two-neuron reflex arcs
● Simplest type (ex. knee reflex)
■ Three-neuron reflex arcs
● Contains the 5 elements (ex. Flexor
reflex)
● 2 types:
○ Somatic reflexes
■ Stimulate the skeletal muscles
■ Involuntary
○ Autonomic reflexes
■ Regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the
heart, and glands

Central nervous system (CNS)

● Functional anatomy of the brain
○ Brain regions:
■ Cerebral hemispheres
● Left and right superior parts of the brain
● Surface is Made of:
 ○ Gyri - ridges
○ sulci - grooves
○ Fissures- deeper grooves
○ Lobes- named from the cranial bones they lie over
● 3 main regions:
○ Cortex- superficial gray matter
■ Localizes and interprets sensory inputs
■ Controls voluntary and skilled skeletal muscle
activity
■ Acts in intellectual and emotional processing
■ Located in parietal lobe posterior to central
sulcus
■ 2 types:
● Primary somatic sensory area
○ Located in parietal lobe posterior
to central sulcus
○ Receives impulses from the
body’s sensory receptors
● Primary motor area
○ Located anterior to the central
sulcus in the frontal lobe
○ Allows us to consciously move
skeletal muscles
■ Cerebral areas involved in special senses:
● Visual (occipital)
● Auditory & Olfactory(temporal)
● Motor speech (broca’s area)
● Anterior association (frontal)
● Posterior association (posterior cortex)
● Speaking (speech area)
○ White matter
■ Fiber tracts deep to the gray matter
■ Corpus callosum- connects hemispheres
■ 2 types of fiber tracts:
● Association fiber tracts- connect areas
within a hemisphere
● Projection fiber tracts- connect the
cerebrum with lower CNS centers
○ Basal nuclei- deep pockets/islands of gray matter
■ Subcortical motor center that helps control
skeletal muscle movements

■ Diencephalon
● Sits on top of the brain stem
● Enclosed by the cerebral hemisphere
● Made of 3 structures:
○ Thalamus
■ Relays sensory impulses to cerebral cortex
 ■ Transfers impulses to the correct part of the
cortex for localization and interpretation
■ Involved in memory
○ Hypothalamus
■ Chief integration center of autonomic
(involuntary) nervous system
■ Regulates body temp, food intake, water
balance, and thirst
■ Regulates output of anterior pituitary gland and
acts as an endocrine organ (produces ADH and
oxytocin)
■ Makes up the floor of the diencephalon
■ Houses the limbic center for emotions
■ Houses mammillary bodies for olfaction
■ One of the last areas to develop which makes
preemie babies have trouble regulating body
temp
○ Epithalamus
■ Houses the pineal body
■ Includes the choroid plexus-forms cerebrospinal
fluid
● Limbic system
○ A functional system made up of the cerebral and
diencephalon structures
○ Mediates emotional response and memory processing
■ Brain Stem
● Attaches to the spinal cord
● Parts:
○ Midbrain
■ Extends from the mamillary bodies to the pons
inferiorly
■ Contains visual and auditory reflex centers
■ Contains subcortical motor centers
○ Pons
■ Rounded structure protruding just below the
midbrain
■ Includes nuclei involved in the control of
breathing
■ Relays information from the cerebrum to the
cerebellum
■ Cooperates with the medullary centers to
control respiratory rate and depth
○ Medulla oblongata
■ The most inferior part of the brain stem that
merges into the spinal cord
■ Relays ascending sensory pathway impulses
from skin and proprioceptors
 ■ Contains nuclei controlling heart rate, blood
vessel diameter, respiratory rate, vomiting, etc
■ Site of crossover of pyramids
● Reticular formation
○ Diffused mass of gray matter along the brain stem
○ Involved in motor control of visceral organs
○ Reticular activating system (RAS)
■ Plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and
consciousness
■ Maintains cerebral cortical alertness; filters out
repetitive stimuli
○ Helps regulate skeletal and visceral muscle activity
■ Cerebellum
● Processes information from cerebral motor cortex, proprietors,
and visual and equilibrium pathways
● Provides “instructions” to cerebral motor cortex and subcortical
motor centers
● Responsible for proper balance and posture
● Protection of the central nervous system
○ Meninges
■ Layers
● Dura mater
○ Outermost leathery layer
○ Double-layered external covering
■ Periosteum- attached to inner surface of the
skull
■ Meningeal layer- outer covering of the brain
● Arachnoid layer
○ Middle layer
● Pia mater
○ Internal layer
○ Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF0
■ Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain and spinal cord
■ Produced by choroid plexus
○ Blood-brain barrier
■ Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
■ Allows water, glucose, and amino acids to pass through capillary walls
■ Excludes many potentially harmful substances from entering the brain

Brain dysfunctions
● Traumatic brain injuries
○ Concussion
■ Slight brain injury
■ Typically little permanent brain damage occurs
○ Contusion
■ Marked nervous tissue destruction occurs
■ Coma may occur
○ Death may occur after head blows due to:
 ■ Intracranial hemorrhage
■ Cerebral edema
● Cerebrovascular accident (CVA) / stroke
○ Results when blood circulation to a brain area is blocked and brain tissue dies
○ Loss of some functions or death may result
■ Hemiplegia- one-sided paralysis
■ Aphasia- damage to speech center in left hemisphere
● Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
○ Temporary brain ischemia (restriction of blood flow)
○ Numbness, temporary paralysis, impaired speech

Spinal cord
● Provides a 2 way conduction pathway to and from the brain
● Cauda equina- collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end
● 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord
● Gray matter of the spinal cord and spinal roots
○ Mostly cell bodies
○ 2 horns
■ Dorsal horns
● House interneurons
● Receive information from sensory neurons in the dorsal root
■ Anterior horns
● House motor neurons of the somatic nervous system
● Send information out the ventral root
● White matter of the spinal cord
○ 3 regions:
■ Dorsal columns
■ Lateral columns
■ Ventral columns
■ Has the afferent and efferent nervous system

Structure of a nerve
● Nerves- bundle of neurons outside the CNS
● Endoneurium- connective tissue sheath that surrounds each fiber
● Perineurium- wraps groups of fibers bound into a fascicle
● Epineurium- binds groups of fascicles

Cranial nerves
● 12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the head and neck
● Cranial Nerves Mnemonic Device
● Oh – Olfactory (sensory)
● Oh – Optic (sensory)
● Oh – Oculomotor
● To – Trochlear
● Touch – Trigeminal
● And – Abducens
● Feel – Facial
● Very – Vestibulocochlear (sensory)
 ● Green – Glossopharyngeal
● Vegetables – Vagus
● A – Accessory
● H – Hypoglossal
● Cranial nerves:
○ Olfactory- purely sensory; carries impulses for the sense of smell
○ Optic- purely sensory; carries impulses for vision
○ Oculomotor- supplies motor fibers that direct the eyeball; to the eyelid; and
to the internal eye muscles controlling lens shape and pupil size
○ Trochlear- supplies motor fibers for one external eye muscle to follow moving
objects
○ Trigeminal- conducts sensory impulses from the skin and mucosa; also
contains motor fibers that activate the chewing muscles
○ Abducens- supplies motor fibers to the lateral rectus muscle, which rolls the
eye laterally
○ Facial- activates the muscles of facial expression and the lacrimal and
salivary glands; carries sensory impulses from the taste buds
○ Vestibulocochlear- purely sensory; vestibular branch transmits impulses for
the sense of balance, and cochlear branch transmits impulses for the sense
of hearing
○ Glossopharyngeal- supplies motor fibers to the pharynx that promote
swallowing and saliva production
○ Vagus- fibers carry sensory impulses from and motor impulses to the
pharynx, larynx, and the abdominal and thoracic viscera
○ Accessory- motor fibers that activate the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
muscles
○ Hypoglossal- motor fibers control tongue movements

Spinal nerves
● 31 pairs
● Named from the region
● Ramus- branch of spinal nerve that contains both motor and sensory fibers
● Dorsal rami- serve the skin and muscles of the posterior trunk
● Ventral rami (t1-t12)- form the intercostal nerves that supply muscles and skin of the
ribs and trunk
● Ventral rami (except t1-t12)- form a complex of networks (plexus) for the anterior
● Plexus- networks of nerves serving motor and sensory needs of the limbs
○ 4 plexuses:
■ The cervical plexus supplies nerves to the neck, shoulders, and
diaphragm, aiding in head and neck movement and breathing.
■ The brachial plexus controls motor and sensory functions of the arms,
forearms, and hands.
■ The lumbar plexus serves the lower back, abdomen, thighs, and legs,
facilitating movement and sensation.
■ The sacral plexus provides nerves to the pelvis, buttocks, genitals,
thighs, calves, and feet for motor control and sensory feedback.

Developmental aspects of the nervous system

● Orthostatic hypotension- low blood pressure due to changes in body position
● Cardiovascular disease- major cause of declining mental function with age
● Arteriosclerosis- decreased elasticity of blood vessels