PLASMA UNIVERSITY

CELLULAR COMMUNICATION

Lecture Three:

Engr. Abdikarim Ali Rahoy

M.Sc. Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Type of Cells

2
 Type of Cells
 Macro cells
 The cells typically have a radius of 10 – 35 km
 For outdoors: rural, suburban & urban areas
 Medium traffic densities
 RBS antenna height greater than surrounding buildings
 Micro cells
 Radius up to 2 km
 For outdoor and indoor: suburban & urban areas
 High traffic densities
 RBS antenna height lower than or near by building roof top
 Pico cells
 For indoor only
 High traffic densities and high data rate
3  Coverage defined by characteristics of room and floor
 Cell Capacity and Reuse
 Consider a cellular system with S duplex channels.

 Suppose each cell is allocated a unique group of K channels. Let

these S channels be divided among N cells (cluster). Therefore,

S kN
 The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available

frequencies is called a cluster..

 If a cluster of N cells is replicated M times within the system, the

total number of duplex channels, C, can be used as a measure of

capacity and is given by:
4
C MkN MS
 Cell Capacity and Reuse…cont()
If the cluster size N is reduced keeping the cell
size fixed, more clusters are required to cover the
entire are of interest

M   C
Smaller N ( higher capacity) implies larger
cochannel interference, which my result in lower
Quality of Service (Qos).

5
 Example 1
 If a total of 33 MHz of bandwidth is allocated to a particular FDD

cellular telephone system which uses two 25 kHz simplex

channels to provide full duplex voice and control channels,
compute the number of channels available per cell if a system
uses

(a) four-cell reuse,

(b) seven-cell reuse, and

(c) 12-cell reuse.

 If 1 MHz of the allocated spectrum is dedicated to control

channels, determine an equitable distribution of control channels

6
and voice channels in each cell for each of the three systems.
 Solution
 Given:

 Total bandwidth = 33 MHz

 Channel bandwidth = 25 kHz × 2 simplex channels = 50 kHz/duplex

channel
 Total available channels = 33,000/50 = 660 channels

(a) For N = 4,
 total number of channels available per cell = 660/4 ≈ 165 channels.

(b) For N = 7,
 total number of channels available per cell = 660/7 ≈ 95 channels.

(c) For N = 12,

7
 total number of channels available per cell = 660/12 ≈ 55 channels.
 A 1 MHz spectrum for control channels implies that there

are 1000/50 = 20 control channels out of the 660 channels

available.
To evenly distribute the control and voice channels, simply

allocate the same number of voice channels in each cell

wherever possible.
Here, the 660 channels must be evenly distributed to each

cell within the cluster. In practice, only the 640 voice

channels would be allocated, since the control channels are
8 allocated separately as 1 per cell.
 a) For N = 4, we can have five control channels and 160

voice channels per cell.

 In practice, however, each cell only needs a single

control channel (the control channels have a greater

reuse distance than the voice channels).
Thus, one control channel and 160 voice channels

would be assigned to each cell.

9
 b. For N = 7, four cells with three control channels and

92 voice channels, two cells with three control

channels and 90 voice channels, and one cell with
two control channels and 92 voice channels could
be allocated. In practice, however, each cell would
have one control channel, four cells would have 91
voice channels, and three cells would have 92 voice
channels.

10
 c) For N = 12, we can have eight cells with two
control channels and 53 voice channels, and four
cells with one control channel and 54 voice
channels each. In an actual system, each cell would
have one control channel, eight cells would have 53
voice channels, and four cells would have 54 voice
channels

11
 Example 2
Design your own cellular
network for 30,000 sq. km
area. Assume that the total
population is 500,000 and
you have 25 MHz BW.
Consider using 2G cellular
network
12
Plan coverage Area and expected capacity

The coverage area should be in Afgoe District, which its total

population are estimated around 500,000 and our network
will cover only 30,000 km² it.
 Solution
Coverage area and Expected population
given are:
The coverage area should be in Afgoe
District, which its total population are
estimated around 5,00,000 and our
network will cover only 30,000 km² it.
 Solutions
Preplanning:
Our network is designed to cover an area of 30,000km2.
The base stations to be used are 5sectored. Each sector
(cell) covers a range of 3.0 km Thus,
area covered by each site = k * R2
Where: k = 1.95
 Area covered by each site — 1.95 * 32 =17.55km
Thus: total number of sites = 30,000/17.55 = 1709 sites.
 Frequency Re-use
Five TRX that are to be used per base station and
the total number of frequencies available is 25,
then the total number of frequencies available for
re-use is 25/5 = 5
It is managed bandwidth of 25 MHZ as following:
The frequency bands used are 890-915 MHz in the
uplink direction and 920-945 MHz in the downlink
direction, which means a bandwidth of 25 MHz in
each direction
Capacity requirements
 Capacity requirements on the Ater interface in our
network, as a radio planners we have decided that there
are five sites of 2 + 2 configuration in a single BSC. Air
interface blocking is 2% and Ater 5 sites of 2 + 2
configuration = 10 cells, each having 15 TCH Air interface
blocking = 2% Using Erlang B tables, 15 TCH support =
9.01 Erl of traffic. Traffic offered to the BSC = 10 x 9.01 =
90.1 Erl. If Ater blocking probability is 0.1%, then the
number of traffic channels supported =117 (approx.)
 If the number of traffic channels that can be multiplexed on
the Ater = 120 and 4 for signaling Then Ater interface
capacity would be = 117/124=0.94355 ~ 1 El.
Traffic calculation
If it is used TRX Configuration pattern 4/4/4. Here we
have 124 Traffic Channel. Bounded by them we will
utilize 4 for signaling and the rest of 120 TCH remain
for voice. In the radio network all TCH are in full rate
so that GSM allows 75% half rate channel. 90 TCH
among 120 TCH full rates will turn into half rate. In
order to get the number of half rate channel: 90 X 2 =
180TCH having these parameters will result Total
Number of TCH = 180+30=210 TCH ,thus Traffic
Handling capability of a Single BTS = 210 X 4 =840
Erlang .
Traffic calculation
We have to calculated the total traffic volume of the
network. Suppose average talk time of a user is 90 sec
or 1.5 minutes.
1.5 minutes use by= 1 user
1 minutes use by = 1/1.5 user
60 minutes use by =60/1.5 =40 users.
So we can find out the number users covered by per
site or BTS.
Per BTS user = 40 X840 = 33400 users.
Calculations
Maximum simultaneous Call: 500,000.
Though we calculate one channel capacity in one hour
is 1Erl. But practically we get 0.8 to 0.9 Erl .
I assume 0.80 Erl So targeted DS0 required
=500,000/0.80 = 625000.
 therefore one STM-1 is enough for this network
 Summary:
Design Objectives for Cluster Size

 High spectrum efficiency:

Objective: accommodate many users per cell

(max network capacity)
Solution: Small cluster size gives much
bandwidth per cell
 High performance

Objective: Minimize interference

Solution: Large cluster sizes

21
 Channel Assignment Strategies
 A scheme for increasing the system capacity and minimizing

the interference is required.

 Classification:

 Fixed channel assignment

 Dynamic channel assignment

 The Choice of the channel assignment strategy impacts the

performance on the system in terms of :-

 Handoff
 Call initialization
22
 1. Fixed Channel Assignment
 Each cell is assigned a predetermined set of X voice
channels.
 Any request for a new call initialization beyond X [assuming
all x channels of the cell are in use ] will be blocked.
 Any request for a handoff [ Assuming all x channels of this
candidate cell are in use] will not be treated. [MS may have
to wait, call can drop even].
 Several solution to the problem: -borrowing strategy –
reserve some channels for handoff.
23
 2) Dynamic Channel Assignment
 Voice channels are not allocated to different cells
permanently.
 Each time a call request is made, the BS requests a channel
from the MSC (central pool available Channels).
 MSC allocates a channel to the requested cell using an
algorithm that takes into account;
 Probability of future blocking (in the cell).

 Frequency of use of candidate channels.

 Reuse distance of the channel.

24
 Advantages/disadvantages of dynamic
channel allocation
 Advantages:

 Reduction of blocking probability

 Reduction of call drop probability during handoff

 Improvement of system trunking capacity.

 All that above mentioned benefits are obtained at the cost of

storage and computational load on MSC.

 MSC must collect real time channel occupancy Data.

 traffic distribution information.

25  Radio Signal Strength Indications (RSSI) of all the channels

 Handoff Strategies
- What is Handoff?

 When a mobile moves into a different cell while a

conversation is in progress, the MSC automatically transfers

the call to a new channel belonging to the new base station.

 The Handoff operation involves Identifying a new base

station (BS)and the allocation of voice and control signals

associated with the new BS,

 Must be performed successfully, as infrequently as possible

26 and must be imperceptible to the users.

 Handover Scenario

27
 Signal strength Handoff Region Signal strength
du to BS1 du to BS2

Pt(x) Pt(x)

28
 Handoff Region

29
 Handoff Region
Handoff is made when the received signal at the BS falls
below a pre-specified threshold.
Handoff must ensure that the drop in the measured
signal is not due to momentary fading and that the
mobile is actually moving away from the serving base
station.
In order to ensure this, the BS monitors the signal for a
certain period of time before initiating handoff.
The length of the time needed to decide if handoff is
necessary depends on the speed at which the mobile is
moving.
30
 Handoff Strategies
In the first generation analog cellular systems, the
signal strength measurements are made by the BS and
are supervised by the MSC.
In the second generation systems that use TDMA
technology, Mobile Assisted Handoffs (MAHO) are
used.
In MAHO, every MS measures received power from the
surrounding BS and continually report these values to
corresponding BS.
Handoff is initiated if the signal strength of a
neighboring BS exceeds that of the current BS.
31
 Handover Types
 Hard handoff (break before make):

 FDMA,TDMA(1G and 2G system)

 Mobile has radio link with only one BS at any time.

 Old BS connection is terminated before new BS connection is made.

 Soft Handoff (make before break):

 CDMA systems mobile has simultaneous radio link with more then

one BS at any time.

 New BS connection is made before old BS connection is broken.

 Mobile unit remains in this state until one base station clearly

predominates.
32
 Interference and system capacity
What is Interference: Interference is Unwanted Signal
which affects the speech Quality and System Capacity.
Interference is a major limiting factor in the performance of
cellular radio. It limits capacity and increases the number of
dropped calls.
 Sources of interference
 another mobile in the same cell
 a call in progress in the neighboring cell
 other base stations operating in the same frequency
band
Interference is more severe in the urban areas due to greater
33 RF noise floor and more number of MS and BS
 The Effect of Interference
Interference on Voice Channels causes:-
Crosstalk
Noise in the background ( due to an
undesired signal)
Interference on Control Channels causes Error in
digital signaling, which causes
Missed calls
Blocked calls
Dropped calls

34
 Two major cellular interference
 There are two major types of interference:-

Co-channel Interference

Adjacent Channel Interference

 CCI is caused due to the cells that reuse the same

frequency set. These cells using the same frequency set

are called co-channel cells.
 ACI is caused due to the signals that are adjacent in

35 frequency.
 Co-channel Interference

C = carrier in the desired signal, I = interference comes

from other cells using same channels , D/R = co channel
reuse ratio.

 For analog cellular system , C/I ≥18 dB

 For digital cellular system C/I ≥ 11 dB

36
 Co-channel interference (CCI)
Second tier First tier
Co-channel Base Co-channel Base
Stations Stations

D6
D5
D1

MS
D4
D2

D3

Serving Base
Station
37
 Co-channel interference (CCI)
Unlike thermal noise, CCI cannot be overcome by
increasing the carrier power of the transmitter.
This is because, any increase in the transmitter power
increases the interference to other co-channel cells
( creating our own noise!).
For similar sized cells, the CCI is independent of the
transmitted power and depends on the cell radius, R and
the distance to the nearest co-channel cell, D.
To reduce CCI the co-channel cell must be separated by a
minimum distance ( Physically).
38
 Co-channel interference (CCI)
Unlike thermal noise, CCI cannot be overcome by
increasing the carrier power of the transmitter.
This is because, any increase in the transmitter power
increases the interference to other co-channel cells
( creating our own noise!).
For similar sized cells, the CCI is independent of the
transmitted power and depends on the cell radius, R and
the distance to the nearest co-channel cell, D.
To reduce CCI the co-channel cell must be separated by a
minimum distance ( Physically).
39
 Calculation of Signal to interference Ratio: S/I
 The Signal-to-interference ratio (S/I) for a mobile is:-
S S
 i0
I
I
i1
i

i0
 be the numberI i of co-channel interfering cells, S: the desired
signal power; is interference power caused by the I th
interfering co-channel cell base station
 The average received power at a distance d is:-
n
d  d0
Pr  P0  
 d0  P0 :measued power
TX

 P0 is received power at reference distance.

 d0 and n is the path loss exponent.
40
 Calculation of S/I
If Di is the distance of the Ith interferer, the received
power is proportional to (Di)-n.
The path loss exponent, n which ranges between 2 and 4
Thus, the S/I for a mobile can be written as:-
S R n
 i0
I
 i
D
i 1
n

Consider only the first layer of interfering

cells
S ( D / R)
 
3N n
 
n

I i0 i0
41
 Calculation of S/I- Normal Case

For a Hexagonal cluster of cells

S ( D / R)

n

3N  
n

I i0 i0

i0 6

S 1
 
n
 3N
I 6

Hence, S/I is independent of Cell Radius.

42
 Example 1
Design Parameters:-
 Desired S/I=15dB
 Path loss exponent, n=4 ( dense urban like Mogadishu)
What is the required reuse factor?

Solution:
First try N=4
D 3.46  S  1   1
n 4
3N  3.46  24.0 13.80 dB
R I 6 6

Since this is less than the desired 15 dB, we must move to the
43 next higher reuse distance.
 First try N=7
D 4.58  S  1   1
n 4
3N  4.58  73.5 18.66 dB
R I 6 6

Since this is greater than the desired 15 dB, the required

reuse factor N=7.

44
 Example 2
Design Parameters:-
 Desired S/I=15dB
 Path loss exponent, n=3 ( suburban like Afgoye)
What is the required reuse factor?

Solution:
First try N=7
D 4.58  S  1   1
n 3
3N  4.58  16.04 12.05 dB
R I 6 6

Since this is less than the desired 15 dB, we must move to the
45 next higher reuse distance.
 Adjacent Channel Interference
 Results from signals that are adjacent in frequency
to the desired signal.
 Results from Imperfect receiver filters that allow

nearby frequencies to leak in.

 Problem can severe if the interferer is very close to

the subscriber’s recover.

46
 Adjacent Channel Interference
Near Far effect:
 When an interferer close to the BS radiates in the
adjacent channel, while the subscriber is far away from
the BS.

47
 Adjacent Channel Interference
 Adjacent channel interference can be reduced or minimized:

 careful filtering and

 careful channel assignment.

• Keep the frequency separation between each channel in a

given cell as large as possible

• If the subscriber is at a distance d1 and the interferer is at d2,

then the Signal-to-interference ratio is:-

n
S  d1 
 
48
I  d2 
 Example
Suppose the subscriber is d1=1000m from the BS and
an adjacent channel interferer is at d2=100m from the
BS.
Path loss exponent is n=3.
Signal-to-interference ratio will be:-
n 3
S  d1   1000 
    10 3  30dB
I  d2   100 

49
 Trunking and Grade of Services
How a large population can
be accommodated by a
limited number of
services/channels?

Cellular radio system relies

on trunking (sharing of
resources ) to accommodate a
large number of users in a
limited radio spectrum.
50
 Trunking and Grade of Services
 Developed by a Danish Mathematician, A.K Erlang in the Late 19 th
Century.
 it helps in Establishing a Trunked System which can provide
Communication Services to a large Group of Users with Limited Number of
Available Circuits / Channels in the System [ based on a certain Grade of
Services GOS]
 A Sharing Concept : Large Number of Users share a small Number of
Channels in a Cell/ System.
 Trunking theory (Queuing theory)

 Statistical study of capacity and grade-of-service of trunking system

51
All PSTN/ Cellular Radio Systems Exploit Trunking to a Cover large Users
 Definitions of some terms
 Call Set up Time: the time required to allocate a trunked

radio channel to a requesting user.

 Blocked / Lost Call: A Call that can not be completed at the

time of request due to Congestion.

 Holding Time: Average duration of a typical call, denoted

by H.
 Request Rate: The Average number of Call requests per

unit Time [denoted by λ] .

52
 Definitions of some terms…Cont

 Traffic Intensity: Measure of channel time utilization,

which is the average channel occupancy measured in

Erlangs.
 Load: Traffic Intensity across the entire trunked radio

system, measured in Erlangs.

 Grade of Service (GOS): A measure of Congestion which

is specified as a probability.
 The Probability of a call being blocked ( Erlang B)

 The Probability of a call being delayed beyond a certain

53
amount of time ( Erlang C).
 Grade of Service (GOS):

 Measuring performance:
 GOS: the likelihood that a call is blocked or
delayed longer than certain time
number of lost calls
GOS 
number of offered calls
 Measure the ability of a user to access a
trunking system during the busiest hour
 e.g. AMPS had GOS of 2% blocking (i.e. 2 out of
100 calls will be blocked due to the channel
occupancy during the busiest hour)
 Objective of trunking system design
 optimal trade-off in reducing channel number C
54 and reducing call block/delay rate GOS
 Traffic flows
 We distinguish between three components

1. Offered Traffic:
 traffic, which would be carried were there no constraints in the
system
2. Carried Traffic:
 traffic that is actually being carried
3. Blocked (Lost) Traffic:
 difference between the offered and carried traffics
 Traffic Intensity
 In Cellular networks
 Traffic ↔ Calls
 The amount of traffic is described by the traffic intensity A
 Definition:
 Traffic Intensity (A) is the product of the arrival rate λ
(calls/hour) and the mean holding time H (hours/call):

A =H
 Note that the traffic intensity is a dimensionless quantity.
However, to emphasize the context, the “unit” of the traffic
intensity a is called erlang (erl)
 Traffic Theory
 Average no. of MSs requesting service ( request/time)
 Average arrival rate= 

 Average time for which MS requires service

 Average holding time =H

H (In Erlangs).

 Traffic Intensity Offered by a User: Au

 Total System Traffic/ Load= A UAu where U is Total

Number of System Users.
 Traffic Intensity per Channel: if C is the Total Number of
Channels in a system and given Load A, then the Traffic

57
Intensity / Channel Ac UAu / C
 Blocked Calls Cleared (BCC)…cont()

 Probability of an arriving call being blocked is

AC
GOS B c Erl (C , A )  CC ! i
A
 i!
i 0

Where C is the number of channels and A is the total

offered traffic intensity.

58
 2. Blocked Calls Delayed(BCD) Trunking Systems:

 Blocked calls are provided with a queue to hold the call

requests unless a channel becomes available.
 If a channel is not available immediately, the call request my
be delayed until channel becomes available.
 GOS of BCD trunking radio system is defined as a probability
that a call is blocked after waiting a specific length of time in
the queue.

 Such a System is Called an Erlang C System which is

governed by Erlang C Formula [ECF] as Given in the
Book
59
 Assignment 1

Describe Erlang C formula breifly

with the help of examples????

60
 Examples (1)
Consider a small Cellular Radio System

 Given 4 Channels

 There are all together 20 Subscribers and

 each subscriber is Expected to generate a traffic

of 0.1 Earling.
Determine the Probability of Blockage [ That at any

time all the 4 Channels get Busy].

61
 Solution
Given :
number of channels: C=4 , Au 0.1 Erlang
number of user : U=20
the total traffic A =UAu 0.120 2 Erlang
then using the Erlang B formula we can find the
probability of Blockage:-
AC 24
B c Erl (4, 2)  CC ! i  4 4! i 0.09
A 2
 i!  i!
i 0 i 0
62