ADVANCED DIGITAL

COMMUNICATIONS
Lecture #2: Review of Analog
Modulations
Introduction
 Original information signals are seldom in
proper form for transmission.
 They must be transformed into form
suitable for transmission.
 Process of impressing information signal
onto high frequency carrier is called
modulation.
 The reverse process is called
demodulation.
Introduction
 AM modulation is a process of changing
amplitude of carrier in proportion with
amplitude of information signal.
 AM is cheap, low complexity, low quality
 Used for commercial broadcasting of both
audio and video signals.
 Broadcast in medium and high frequency bands
 Aircraft communication in VHF band
 TV broadcast and long-distance telephony
Principles of AM
 AM modulator are nonlinear devices with
two inputs:
 High frequency sinusoidal carrier
 Low-frequency information signal
Principles of AM
Full–Carrier AM: Time Domain
 If the baseband signal is sine wave

em (t )  Em sin m t 

and carrier is
ec (t )  Ec sin c t 

then, the Full-Carrier AM modulated signal

is given by
v(t )  Ec  em (t ) sin c t
=  Ec  Em sin m t sin c t
Full–Carrier AM: Modulation
Index
 Modulation index describes amount of
amplitude change present in AM waveform.
 Mathematically, it can be expressed as
Em
m
Ec
 Using m, AM formula can be expressed as

v(t )  Ec  Em sin m t sin c t

= Ec 1  m sin m t sin c t
Full–Carrier AM: Modulation
Index

m=0 m = 0.3

v(t )  Ec  Em sin m t sin c t

m = 0.8 m=1
Full–Carrier AM: Modulation
Index
 When modulation index becomes greater than 1,
overmodulation occurs.
 To prevent overmodulation we keep Em < Ec

v(t )  Ec  Em sin m t sin c t

Full–Carrier AM: Modulation
Index
Full–Carrier AM: Modulation
Index
 When there are two or more sine waves of
different frequencies modulating a single
carrier, m is calculated by

mT  m12  m22 

mT = total resultant modulation index

m1, m2, … = modulation indices due to individual
modulating components
Full–Carrier AM: Modulation
Index
 Find the modulation index if a 10 V carrier is
modulated by three different frequencies with
amplitudes 1 V, 2 V, and 3 V, respectively.

1 2 3
m1  0.1 m2  0.2 m3  0.3
10 10 10
mT  m12  m22  m32
 0.12  0.22  0.32
0.374
Full–Carrier AM: Modulation
Index
 By inspecting the
figure, we get

Emax  Ec  Em
 Ec 1  m 
Emin  Ec  Em
 Ec 1  m 

Emax  Emin
m
Emax  Emin
Full–Carrier AM: Modulation
Index
Calculate the modulation index for the waveform shown in
figure.

Emax  75 mV ,
Emin  35 mV ,
Emax - Emin
m
Emax  Emin
75  35
 0.364 or 36.4%
75  35
Full-Carrier AM: Frequency
Domain
 AM mathematical expression for sine wave
modulating signal is given by
v(t )  Ec 1  m sin m t sin c t
= Ec sin c t  mEc sin m t sin c t

 By using the trigonometric identity:

1
sin A sin B   cos  A  B   cos  A  B 
2

We have
mEc mEc
v(t )  Ec sin c t  cos c  m t  cos c  m t
2 2
Full-Carrier AM: Frequency
Domain

mEc mEc
v(t )  Ec sin c t  cos c  m t  cos c  m t
2 2
mEc mEc
= Ec sin 2 f c t   cos  2  f c  f m t   cos  2  f c  f m t 
2 2
Full-Carrier AM: Bandwidth
(BW)
 Glance at DSBFC spectrum will show that

BW  f usb  f lsb  f c  f m   f c  f m  2 f m

 For complex modulating signal, BW is twice

the highest modulating frequency (Fm)

BW ( Hz ) 2 Fm ( Hz )
Full-Carrier AM: Bandwidth
(BW)
Baseband signal Carrier

100 kHz f
0.3 3 f (kHz)

Lower sideband Upper sideband

BW 103  97 6kHz
2 Fm 2 3 6kHz
f(kHz)
100
Full-Carrier AM: Bandwidth
(BW)
Full-Carrier AM: Power
Relationships
 Power that is important is not the total
power but the used to transmit
information.
 The easiest way to look at useful power in
AM is to use frequency domain.
 If the modulating signal is sine wave, the
DSBFC is given by
mEc mEc
v(t )  Ec sin c t  cos c  m t  cos c  m t
2 2
Full-Carrier AM: Power
Relationships
mEc mEc
v(t )  Ec sin c t  cos c  m t  cos c  m t
2 2
 The power that appears across resistor R is
Pt  Pc  Plsb  Pusb

   mE / 2 2   mE / 2 2 
2 2 2
E c / 2 c c

R R R
Ec2 m 2 Ec2 m 2 Ec2
    
2R 4 2R 4 2R
m2 m2
 Pc  Pc  Pc
4 4
m2  m2 
 Pc  Pc  Pc  1  
2  2 
Full-Carrier AM: Power
Relationships

Pt Plsb  Pc  Pusb
Full-Carrier AM: Power
Relationships
 The total power in an AM signal
increases with modulation.
 The extra power goes into the
sidebands: the carrier power does
not change with modulation.
 The useful power that carries
information, is rather small reaching a
maximum of one-third of the total
signal power at 100% modulation.
Full-Carrier AM: Generation and
Detection
 Square-Law Modulation: Let’s consider
nonlinear device which has input-output
characteristics as shown in Figure

y
y 1 x   2 x 2
x(t ) em (t )  Ec sin 2 f ct

 If the input to the nonlinear device is

Full-Carrier AM: Generation and
Detection
 Then, the output of the nonlinear device is
y (t ) 1  em (t )  Ec sin 2 f c t    2  em (t )  Ec sin 2 f c t 
2

 2 2 
1em (t )   e (t )   2 sin 2 f c t  Ec1  1 
2
2 m
2
em (t )  sin 2 fc t
 1 

 Using bandpass filter with bandwidth 2BW

centered at f = fc yields
 2 2 
s (t ) Ec1  1  em (t )  sin 2 f ct
 1 

1
sin 2 x  1  cos 2 x 
2
Full-Carrier AM: Generation and
Detection
 Square-law AM modulator

x(t ) em (t )  Ec sin 2 f c t y( t ) 1 x( t )   2 x 2 ( t )

 2 
y (t ) 1em (t )   2em2 (t )   2 sin 2 2 f ct  Ec1  1  2 em (t )  sin 2 f ct
 1 
 2 
u (t ) Ec1  1  2 em (t )  sin 2 f c t
 1 
Full-Carrier AM: Generation and
Detection
 Envelope Detector: consists of a diode and
an RC circuit ( Lowpass filter)
id

m(t)
Full-Carrier AM: Limitations
 From frequency domain we find that
DSB-FC suffers from two limitations:
 It is wasteful of power because of the
transmission of the carrier.
 It is wasteful of bandwidth, as it requires twice
the message bandwidth.
 To overcome these limitations, we use:
 Double sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC)
 Single sideband (SSB)
DSB-SC AM: Time Domain
 DSB-SC is generated using product modulator
that multiplies the message signal e m(t) by
the carrier wave

em(t) s (t ) em (t ) Ec sin(2 f c t )

Product
Modulator

ec (t ) Ec sin(2 fc t )
DSB-SC AM : Frequency
Domain
 Fourier Transform of DSB-SC signal
s (t ) Em sin(2 f mt ) Ec sin(2 f c t )

is
Em Ec
2
 cos  2 ( f c  f m )t   cos  2 ( f c  f m )t 
DSB-SC AM : Notes
 All the transmitted power is contained in the
two sidebands (no carrier presents)
 The bandwidth is twice the modulating signal
bandwidth.
DSB-SC AM : Generation and
Detection
 Balanced (Product) Modulator
A relatively simple method to generate a
DSB-SC AM signal is to use two DSB-FC AM
modulators.
Ec 1  em (t )  sin 2 f c t
em(t)

2em (t ) Ec sin 2 f c t

Ec sin(2 f c t )

-em(t)

Ec 1  em (t )  sin 2 f c t
DSB-SC AM : Generation and
Detection
 Coherent (Synchronous) Detection of DSB-SC :
em (t) can be recovered from s(t) by multiplying s(t)
with a locally generated sinusoidal wave and low-pass
filtering the product.

Ec sin(2 f c t   )
DSB-SC AM : Generation and
Detection

Ec sin(2 f c t   )

v(t ) em (t ) Ec sin 2 f ct  Ec' sin 2 f c t   

Ec Ec'
em (t )
2

cos  2  f c  f c t     cos  2  f c  f c t    
Ec Ec'
em (t )
2

cos     cos  2 2 f c t    
Ec Ec'
vo (t )  cos   em (t )
2
 em (t )
DSB-SC AM : Generation and
Detection
 Notes on coherent detection:

Ec Ec'
vo (t)  cos   em (t)
2
αem (t)

 v0(t) is proportional to em(t) when  is

constant.
 em(t) is maximum for  = 0.
 em(t) = 0 for  = /2 ( quadrature null effect)
DSB-SC AM : Power relationships

 DSB-FC is not efficient in terms of

bandwidth & power.
 Transmitted bandwidth is twice the needed
one
 2/3 or more of transmitted power is found on
carrier  m2 
Pt  Pc  1   , for m  1
 2 
3 P 2
Pt  Pc  c 
2 Pt 3
DSB-SC AM : Power relationships

 Removing carrier before transmission would

change available power for sidebands from Pt/3 to
Pt.

Power gained by suppressing the carrier:
Pt
AP  3
1 / 3Pt
AP dB  10 log AP
4.77 dB 5dB

 Power advantage of 5 dB is minimum, since

practical Full-carrier AM operates at m < 100%
Single-Sideband AM (SSB
AM)
 DSBSC is rarely found on its own as
modulation scheme.
 DSBSC is used as basis for generating SSB
signals.
 With DSBSC one sideband is redundant.
 Removing one sideband reduces
bandwidth by a factor of two.
 Removing one sideband improves power
efficiency by a factor of two.
SSB AM: Generation

DSBSC

×
SSB AM: Generation
 With DSBSC AM the bandwidth is

B 2 f m (max)
2 3kHz 6kHz

 With SSB transmission, the bandwidth is

B  f m (max) - f m (min)
3 kHz - 0.3 kHz
2.7 kHz
SSB AM: Advantages
 Bandwidth reduction in SSB has two benefits:
 Takes up less spectrum allowing twice as many
signals in a given spectrum.
 Improvement in power management by 3 dB to
DSBSC.

 PSB ( SSB ) 
10 log 
P  10 log(2) 3dB
 SB ( DSBSC ) 

 Improvement in power management by 3dB +

5dB = 8 dB to full-carrier AM.
SSB AM: Spectrum
Power in Suppressed-Carrier
Signals
 Peak envelope power (PEP) is used in
measuring power in DSBSC and SSB AM.
 PEP is the power at modulation peaks.

 
2
VP / 2
PEP 
RL
VP2

2 RL
Angle Modulation
 In FM, frequency of modulated signal
varies with amplitude of baseband signal.
 In PM, phase of modulated signal varies
with amplitude of baseband signal.
 In angle modulation amplitude of
carrier signal doesn’t change with
modulation.
Angle Modulation
 FM is more familiar in our daily life:
 Radio broadcast
 Sound signal in TV
 PM is less familiar and mostly used in data
communication
Angle Modulation
 Let the unmodulated carrier a sinusoidal
waveform,
s (t )  Ac sin 2 f c t   0 
 Ac sin  (t )

 (t ) 2 f c t   0

for simplicity we consider 0 = 0.

 There are two methods to vary the angle
linearly with message signal
 Frequency modulation (FM)
 Phase modulation (PM)
Frequency Modulation
 In FM, frequency of modulated signal varies
with amplitude of baseband signal.

f sig (t )  f c  k f em (t )
 f c  f
fsig(t) = signal frequency as a function of time
fc = unmodulated carrier frequency
kf = frequency sensitivity of modulator in
hertz per volt
em(t) = modulating signal
f = instantaneous frequency deviation
Frequency Modulation
 If the modulating signal is a sine wave
em (t )  Em sin m t
then
f sig (t )  f c  k f Em sin m t

 The peak frequency deviation (Hz) will be

  k f Em

 Thus, frequency deviation is

f sig (t )  f c   sin m t
FM: Modulation Index
 Modulation index mf for sine wave is
k f Em 
mf  
fm fm

 mf has no theoretical limits and can

exceeds one.
 The frequency deviation formula can be
f sig (t )  f c  m f f m sin m t
rewritten as
FM vs. AM
Phase Modulation (PM)
 In PM,  (t) is varied linearly with the
message signal m(t)
 (t ) 2 f c t  k p em (t )
 c  k p em (t )

 c = 2fct is the angle of the unmodulated carrier.

 kp is the phase sensitivity of the modulator, expressed in
radian per volt.
 PM signal in the time domain is
s(t )  Ac cos 2 f c t  k p em (t ) 
Phase Modulation
 If modulation signal is a sinusoidal one,
phase of the modulated carrier is given by

 (t )  c  k p Em sin m t
= c   (t )
 (t) is the phase deviation in radian
 The peak phase deviation is defined as
phase modulation index, given as
m p k p Em
Relationships between FM
and PM
 With FM, the instantaneous frequency is
f sig (t )  f c  k f em (t )
 Since
t
 (t ) 2  f sig (t )dt
0

t t
 (t ) 2  f c  k f em (t )  dt 2 f c t  2 k f em ( )d
0 0

 The FM signal is therefore

 t

s (t )  Ac sin  2 f c t  2 k f em ( )d 
 0 
Relationships between FM
and PM
 The FM signal in time domain is given by
 t

s (t )  Ac sin  2 f c t  2 k f em ( )d 
 0 
= Ac sin  2 f c t  k p em (t ) 

 Recalling PM signal in time domain

s(t )  Ac cos 2 f c t  k p em (t ) 
 Thus, FM signal may be regarded as a PM
signal in which t
em (t ) em ( )d
0
Relationships between FM
and PM
 FM signal can be generated by integrating
em(t) and then using the result as an input
to phase modulator.
Relationships between FM
and PM
 Conversely, a PM signal can be generated by
first differentiating em(t) and then using the
result as the input to a frequency modulator.

dem (t )
f sig (t )  f c  k f
dt
t
 (t ) 2 f sig (t )dt 2 f c t  2 k f em (t )
0

2 f c t  k p em (t )
Relationships between FM
and PM
 We may thus deduce all the properties of
PM signals from those of FM signals and
vice versa.
 Henceforth, we concentrate our attention
on FM signals.
FM Spectrum
 FM is nonlinear modulation so its
spectrum is not related in a simple
manner to that of modulating signal.
 To simplify FM spectral analysis we
proceed in the following manner:
 We consider single-tone modulation that
produces a narrow band FM signal.
 Next, we consider single-tone modulation
that produces wideband FM signal.
FM Spectrum
 If the modulating signal is a sine wave

em (t )  Em sin m t
then
f sig (t )  f c  k f Em sin m t
 The peak frequency deviation (Hz) will be
  k f Em
 Thus, frequency deviation is
f sig (t )  f c   sin m t
FM Spectrum
 With FM, the instantaneous frequency is
f sig (t )  f c   sin m t

Since
t
 (t ) 2  f sig (t )dt
0

t

 (t ) 2  f c   sin(2 f m t )  dt 2 f c t  cos(2 f mt )
0
fm
2 f c t  m f cos(2 f m t )
FM Spectrum
 Thus, the FM signal itself is given by

s (t ) Ec sin  2 f c t  m f cos(2 f m t ) 

 Depending on the value of mf, we may

distinguish two cases:
 Narrowband FM, for which mf is small compared
to one radian.
 Wideband FM, for which mf is large compared
to one radian.
 sin( x  y ) sin x cos y  cos x sin y
FM: Narrowband Spectrum
 The FM signal is given by
s (t ) Ec sin  2 f c t  m f cos(2 f mt ) 

By expanding this relation, we get

s (t ) Ec sin 2 f ct cos  m f sin(2 f mt   Ec cos 2 f ct sin  m f sin(2 f mt ) 

 Assuming mf is small compared to one radian,

cos  m f sin 2 f mt  1
sin  m f sin 2 f mt  m f sin(2 f mt )

s (t ) Ec sin 2 f ct   m f Ec cos 2 f ct sin(2 f mt )

 FM: Narrowband Spectrum
 Because
1
cos x sin y   sin  x  y   sin  x  y 
2

s (t ) Ec sin(2 f c t )  1 m f Ec  sin  2 ( f c  f m )t   sin  2 ( f c  f m )t 

2
 This expression is similar to AM signal.

s (t ) Ec sin 2 f ct   m f Ec cos 2 f ct sin(2 f mt )

 Thus for mf<<1 a narrowband FM signal

requires the same transmission bandwidth as
the AM signal (2 fm)
FM: Wideband Spectrum
 For mf >> 1, FM produces infinite
sidebands even for single tone.
 Sideband are separated from carrier by
multiple of fm.
 Amplitude of side bands tends to decrease
with their distance from carrier.
 Sidebands with amplitudes less than 1%
of total signal voltage cab be ignored.
FM: Wideband Spectrum
 FM Spectrum in this case can be expressed
as a series of sinusoids using Bessel function
of first kind.
FM: Wideband Spectrum
 Based on Bessel functions s(t) can be
rewritten as
v(t )  A sin c t  m sin m t 
 A{J 0 (m) sin c t
- J1 (m)  sin c - m t - sin c  m t 
 J 2 (m)  sin c - 2m t - sin c  2m t 
- J 3 (m)  sin c - 3m t - sin c  3m t 
}
FM: Wideband Spectrum
FM: Wideband Spectrum
FM: Wideband Spectrum
 Let unmodulated carrier have a voltage of 1 V
RMS across a resistance of RL .
 Power at carrier frequency is
Vc2 J 02
Pc  
RL RL
2
 Similarly, power in each of sidebands are J
PSB1  1
RL
 Power in whole signal will be
1
PT   J 02  2 J12  2 J 22 
RL
FM: Wideband Spectrum
 Let unmodulated carrier have a peak voltage of 1 V
across a resistance of RL .
 Power at carrier frequency is
2
VRMS J 02
Pc  
RL 2 RL
J12
 Similarly, power in each of sidebands are PSB1 
2 RL
 Power in whole signal will be
J 02 J12 J 22
PT    
2 RL RL RL
1  J 02 
   J12  J 22   
RL  2 
FM: Bandwidth
 For PM, bandwidth varies directly with fm as well
as with mp.
 For FM, situation is complicated by the fact

mf 
fm

 Increase in fm will reduce mf and thus number of sidebands.

 Increase in fm means further apart sidebands in frequency.
 The above two effects work in opposite directions
making FM bandwidth to some extend constant.
FM:
Bandwidth
FM: Bandwidth
 Carson’s Rule: The bandwidth of FM
signal is given by


B 2  max  f m max  
 Example: An FM signal has a deviation of 3 kHz
and a modulating frequency of 1 kHz. Using Cason’s
rule calculate the bandwidth.

B 2   f m 
2 3kHz  1kHz  8kHz
Narrowband and Wideband
FM
 No theoretical limits to modulation index or
frequency deviation of an FM signal.
 In general larger values for deviation result in
increased S/N, while also resulting in greater
bandwidth.
 Large S/N is generally required.
 BW of an FM signal is generally limited by
government regulations that specify:
 Maximum frequency deviation
 Maximum modulating frequency
Narrowband and Wideband
FM
 In general, narrowband FM signals are of
bandwidths of order of 15 kHz and used
for voice communication.
 Wideband FM signals are generally of
bandwidths greater than narrowband.
 200 kHz for FM broadcasting
 36 MHz for satellite television