Diffraction

Diffraction of light
Definition: The phenomenon of bending of light waves
around the edges of an obstacle is called diffraction. It is
the encroachment of light in the region of geometrical
shadow of an obstacle.

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 Conditions of Diffraction

1.Slit/edge of the obstacle should be comparable to

the wavelength of light used.
2.If the slit is much larger than the light's
wavelength, the bending will be almost
unnoticeable. However, if the two are closer in size
or equal, the amount of bending is considerable,
and easily seen with the naked eye. 3
 Difference Between Interference and
Diffraction
Interference Diffraction
1. Interference is the result of 1. Diffraction is the result of
interaction of light coming from interaction of light coming from
different wave fronts originating different parts of the same
from the source. wavefront.
2. Interference fringes may or 2. Diffraction fringes are not of
may not be of the same width. the same width.

3. All bright bands are of same 3. The different maxima are of

intensity varying intensities with maximum
intensity for central maximum.

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 Fresnel Diffraction vs Fraunhoffer
Diffraction
There are two types of diffraction

1. Fresnel Diffraction: In this type of diffraction, the source of light

and the screen are effectively at finite distances from the obstacle.
Observation of Fresnel diffraction phenomenon does not require any
lenses. The incident wave front is not planar. It is experimentally
simple but the analysis proves to be very complex.

2. Fraunhoffer Diffraction: In this type of diffraction, the source of

light and the screen are effectively at infinite distances from the
obstacle. Fraunhoffer diffraction pattern can be easily observed in
practice. The conditions required for Fraunhoffer diffraction are
achieved using two convex lenses, one to make the light from the
source parallel and the other to focus the light after diffraction on to
the screen. This problem is simple to handle mathematically
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Fresnel Diffraction vs Fraunhoffer
Diffraction

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 Diffraction Due to a Single Slit

• Let a beam of parallel monochromatic

light be incident normally on a slit AB of
width ‘a’.
• According to Huygens's theory, every
point on a wave-front acts as a
secondary source of light.
• The parts of each secondary wave
which travel normal to the plane of the

which diffracted at any angle 𝜃 will

slit will be focused at , while those

reach at .
• The intensity at depends upon the path
difference between the secondary
waves originating from the
corresponding points of the wave front. 7
 Diffraction Due to a Single Slit

• Let us consider the point P′

to be at a distance r from
the center of the slit O.
• Further, let us consider a
small element of the wave
front with the coordinates .
• The coordinates of the point
P′ are . The distance of the
element dz from the point is
.
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 Diffraction Due to a Single Slit

The displacement at the point P′ due to

the element dz at any instant is given by

The resultant displacement at P′ due to

the whole wave front is obtained by
integrating the above equation

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 Diffraction Due to a Single Slit

Also,

Now,

From (2)

In the case of Fraunhoffer diffraction, the

screen is at a very large distance from
the slit, therefore r >> z and is
negligible.

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 Diffraction Due to a Single Slit

so,

Or,

But,

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 Diffraction Due to a Single Slit

Substituting the value of in (1) we get,

Let,

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 Diffraction Due to a Single Slit

So,

Or,

Or,

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 Diffraction Due to a Single Slit

Or,

Let,

The amplitude at P′ is and the intensity is

Here is the value of intensity at P, for α = 0, as when

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 Diffraction Due to a Single Slit

(i) Central Maxima: For the point P on the screen ; and hence . The value
of when . Hence, the intensity at P, is which is a maximum.
(ii)Secondary Maxima: The intensity at is given by

For to be maximum,

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 Diffraction Due to a Single Slit

If graphs are plotted for , and , it can be seen

that the secondary maxima are not exactly
midway between two minima.

The direction of the secondary maxima are

given by

Solving for and putting n = 1, 2, 3, …

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 Diffraction Due to a Single Slit

For the first secondary maxima,

For the second secondary maxima,
Thus, the secondary maxima are of decreasing intensity.

(iii) Secondary Minima: The direction of the secondary

minima are given by

So we get,

Setting, n = 1, 2, 3 we get

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 Diffraction Due to a Single Slit
Problem: Light of wavelength is incident on a slit having a
width of . The viewing screen is from the slit. Find the
positions of the first dark fringes.

Solution:

The position of the first dark fringes is given by

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 Diffraction Due to a Circular Aperture
• Let, be a circular aperture
diameter . is the center of
the aperture and P is a
point on the screen. is
perpendicular to the screen.
corresponds to the position
of the central maximum.

• Now, let us consider the secondary waves traveling in a

direction inclined at an angle with the direction . All these
secondary waves meet at on the screen.

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 Diffraction Due to a Circular Aperture
• Let the distance be . The
path difference between the
secondary waves
emanating from the points
and (extremities of
diameter) is AD.

• From the ,
• the point will be of minimum intensity if this path difference is
equal to integral multiples of , i.e.

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 Diffraction Due to a Circular Aperture
• The point P1 will be of
maximum intensity if the
path difference is equal to
odd multiples of , i.e.

• If P1 is the point of minimum intensity , then all the points at

the same distance from P as P1 and lying on a circle of radius x
will be of minimum intensity.

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 Diffraction Due to a Circular Aperture
• The diffraction pattern due to a circular aperture consists of a
central disc called the Airy’s disc, surrounded by alternate
dark and bright concentric rings called the Airy’s rings. The
intensity of the dark rings is zero and that of the bright rings
decreases gradually outwards from P. Further, if the collecting
lens is very near the slit or when the screen is at a large
distance from the lens,

For the first minimum,

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 Diffraction Due to a Circular Aperture
From the equations

Or,

is known as the radius of Airy’s Disc. But actually, the radius of the first
dark ring is slightly more than that given by this equation. According to
Airy, it is given by,

i.e, The more exact theory by Airy indicates that the radius of the first dark
ring is given by the condition that the path difference between the extreme
diffracted rays should be .
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 Homework
1. In Fraunhoffer diffraction pattern due to a narrow slit a
screen is placed away from the lens to obtain the pattern.
If the slit width is and the first minima lie on either sides of
the central maximum, find the wavelength of light.
2. Find the ratio of the intensities of the secondary maxima
to the intensity of the central maximum for the single-slit
Fraunhoffer diffraction pattern.
3. Helium–neon laser light () is sent through a -wide single
slit. What is the width of the central maximum on a screen
from the slit?

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 Diffraction Due to Double Slits
The intensity distribution due to
Fraunhoffer diffraction at double slit
(two parallel slits) can be obtained by
integrating the expression for for both
slits.

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 Diffraction Due to Double Slits
Or,

But,

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 Diffraction Due to Double Slits

Let,

The intensity at point P′ is given by,

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 Diffraction Due to Double Slits
The intensity of the central maximum when
and . In the figure, the dotted curve
represents the intensity distribution due to
diffraction pattern due to double slit and the
thick line curve represents the intensity
distribution due to the interference between
the light from both the slits. The pattern
consists of interference maxima within each
diffraction maximum.

The directions of interference maxima are

given by the equation,

The direction of diffraction minima are given

by the equation,
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 Diffraction Due to Double Slits
Missing Order:

When

If Then

Thus, the orders 2, 4, 6 etc of the

interference maxima will be missing in
the diffraction pattern. Thus,
depending on the relative values of a
and b certain orders of interference
maxima will be missing in the
resultant pattern.
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Distinction Between Single Slit and Double
Slit Diffraction Patterns

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Distinction Between Single Slit and Double
Slit Diffraction Patterns
Aspect Single Slit Double Slits
Pattern Characteristics Central bright maximum with Equally spaced interference maxima
secondary maxima/minima and minima within central maximum
Intensity of Central Four times that of the central maximum
Gradually decreasing intensity
Maximum in single slit diffraction
Pattern similar to single slit diffraction
Effect of Blocking One Pattern similar to single slit
when one slit is covered with an opaque
Slit diffraction
screen
Spacing of interference maxima/minima
Dependence on Slit Spacing of diffraction depends on a and b (width of the slit
Width (a) maxima/minima depends on a and opaque spacing between the two
slits)

Intensities are not constant, decrease to zero

Intensity of Interference on either side of the central maximum; may
Only central diffraction maxima.
Maxima reappear two or three times before becoming
too low to be observed
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 Fraunhoffer Diffraction at N Slits
To derive an expression for the intensity distribution due to diffraction at N
slits, the expression for has to be integrated for N slits.

For a single slit,

Let,

i.e. a function of . Then for N slits,

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 Fraunhoffer Diffraction at N Slits
Simplifying we get,

Here, , For a general trigonometric summation,

Here, ; ; and

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 Fraunhoffer Diffraction at N Slits

The intensity at point is given by,

The maximum intensity when is

The expression represents the diffraction pattern due to a single slit. The
additional factorrepresents the interference effects due to the secondary
waves from the N slits.
The numerator will be zero when ,
Denominator is also zero when, etc.
Since the quotient is indeterminate, gives the condition for minimum
intensity for all values of other than etc

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 Fraunhoffer Diffraction at N Slits
The directions of principal maxima
correspond to the values of etc.

For directions of principal maxima,

Where,
If the width of the slit is and the width of the
opaque spacing is ,

For values of in between and between and

, etc., there are secondary minima and
secondary maxima

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 Fraunhoffer Diffraction at N Slits
Diffraction Grating:
Diffraction grating is just an optical instrument with N
slits of equal widths whose size is comparable to the
wavelength of light.
The width of each slit is ‘a’ and each slit is separated
by equal opaque distance ‘b’. Then, the distance
between centers of two adjacent slits will be equal to
which is known as grating constant. The relation
between grating constant and total number of lines
is,

When a wave front is incident on a grating surface,

light is transmitted through the slits and obstructed by
the opaque portions. Such a grating is called a
transmission grating. For a transmission grating,
the maxima are given by

Highest order occurs when

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 Homework
1. Find out the expression for the intensity of secondary
maxima in N slit diffraction.
2. Deduce the missing orders for a double slit Fraunhoffer
diffraction pattern, if the slit widths are and they are
apart.
3. Calculate the possible order of spectra with a plane
transmission grating having when light of wavelength is
used.

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 Resolving Power
Resolving Power: The ability of an optical
instrument to resolve the images of two close point
source is known as resolving power.
Limit of Resolution: The minimum separation
between two objects that can be resolved by an
optical instrument is called the limit of Resolution.
Rayleigh Criteria for Resolution: According to
Rayleigh, two close point objects are said to be just
resolved if the principal maxima of one coincides
with the first minima of the other and vice-versa.

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 Resolving Power
The first minimum is at an angle of

So that two point objects are just resolvable if they are

separated by the angle

where λ is the wavelength of light (or other electromagnetic

radiation) and d is the diameter of the aperture, lens, mirror,
etc., with which the two objects are observed. In this
expression, has
units of radians. This angle is also commonly known as the
diffraction limit.
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 Resolving Power of a Telescope
The application of a telescope is to see distinct objects, e.g.,
stars and planets. The details which it gives depend on the
angle subtended at its objective lens by two objects and not on
the linear separation between them.
The resolving power of a telescope is defined as the reciprocal of
the smallest angle subtended at the objective by the two distinct
point objects which can be just seen as separate through the
telescope.

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 Resolving Power of a Telescope
• Let the incident rays of light from two neighboring points like
two stars lying very close to each other fall on the objective
lens of the telescope.
• Let be the diameter of the objective of the telescope as
shown in figure. The image of each point object is a
Fraunhofer diffraction pattern.

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 Resolving Power of a Telescope
• Let and be the position of the central maxima of the two
images of the two point objects. Applying the Rayleigh
criterion, the patterns will be just resolved if the central
maxima of one just falls on the on the first minima of other.
• The path difference between the secondary waves travelling
in the directions and is zero. Thus, corresponds to the
central maximum of the first image.

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 Resolving Power of a Telescope
• The secondary waves traveling in the directions and will
meet at on the screen. Let the angle be . The path difference
between the secondary waves traveling in the directions and
is equal to .

• From the ,

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 Resolving Power of a Telescope
• If this path difference , the position of corresponds to the first
minimum of the first image. But also is the position of the
central maximum of the second image. Thus, Rayleigh’s
condition of resolution is satisfied if,

Or,

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 Resolving Power of a Telescope
The equation holds good for rectangular apertures. For circular
apertures, this equation, according to Airy, can be written as,

where is the wavelength of light and is the aperture of the

telescope objective. The aperture is equal to the diameter of the
metal ring which the objective lens is mounted. Here refers to
the
limit of resolution of the telescope. The reciprocal of measures
the resolving power of the telescope.

From the above equation it is clear that a telescope with large

diameter of the objective has higher resolving power.

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 Resolving Power of a Telescope
Thus, resolving power of a telescope can be defined as the
reciprocal of the angular separation that two distant object
points must have, so that their images will appear just resolved
according to Rayleigh’s criterion.
If is the focal length of the telescope objective, then,

where is the radius of the central bright image. The diameter of

the first dark ring is equal to the diameter of the central image.
The central bright disc is the Airy’s disc.

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 Homework
1. Find the separation of two points on the moon that can be
resolved by a telescope. The distance of the moon is . The
eye is most sensitive to light of wavelength .
2. Two pin holes apart are placed in front of a source of light
of wavelength and seen through a telescope with its
objective stopped down to a diameter of . Find the
maximum distance from the telescope at which the pin
holes can be resolved.

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