Cells

The Simple cell

• The purpose of the electric cell is to change
chemical energy into electrical energy. A
battery consists of two or more cells
connected in series or parallel, but the term is
also used for single cells.
• The construction of the cell is shown in figure 1
where two electrode plates of different
conducting material (e.g., copper and zinc) are
placed in a solution (the electrolyte) of salts, acid
or alkaline. An electric current is found to flow
between the electrodes. An electrolyte is a liquid,
which changes its composition when a current
passes through it.
 Faults for a simple cell
• The efficiency of the simple cell is usually
affected by two faults. These are (1)
Polarization and (2) Local Action.
 Polarization
• This is because of the formation of a film of
hydrogen bubbles on the copper anode. This
effect is known as the polarization of the cell.
The hydrogen prevents full contact between
the copper electrode and the electrolyte -and
this increases the internal resistance of the
cell.
• The effect can be overcome by using a
chemical depolarizing agent or depolarizer,
such as potassium dichromate, which removes
the hydrogen bubbles as they form. This
allows the cell to deliver a steady current.
 Local Action
• When commercial zinc is placed in dilute
sulphuric acid, hydrogen gas is liberated from
it and the zinc dissolves. The reason for this is
that impurities, such as traces of iron, are
present in the zinc, which set up small primary
cells with the zinc.
• These small cells are short-circuited by the
electrolyte, with the result that localized
currents flow causing corrosion. This action is
known as local action of the cell. This may be
prevented by rubbing a small amount of
mercury on the zinc surface, which forms a
protective layer on the surface of the
electrode.
The simple cell is also affected by corrosion

• Corrosion is the gradual destruction of a metal

in a damp atmosphere by means of simple cell
action. In addition to the presence of moisture
and air required for rusting, an electrolyte, an
anode and a cathode are required for
corrosion.
• The effects of corrosion include the
weakening of structures, the reduction of the
life of components and materials, the wastage
of materials and expense of replacement.
• Corrosion may be prevented by coating with
paint, grease, coatings and enamels, or by
plating with tin or chromium. Also iron may be
galvanized, I.e., plated with zinc, the layer of
zinc helping to prevent the iron from
corroding.
 Types of cells
• Cells can be placed into two groups: (1)
Primary cells and (2) secondary Cells
 Primary cells

• Primary cells cannot be recharged, that is, the

conversion of chemical energy to electrical
energy is irreversible and the cell cannot be
used once the chemicals are exhausted.
Examples of primary cells include the
Leclanche cell and the mercury cell.
Examples of primary cells
 Lechlanche cell
• Such a cell has an e.m.f. of about 1.5 V when
new, but this falls rapidly if in continuous use
due to polarization. The hydrogen film on the
carbon electrode forms faster than can be
dissipated by the depolarizer. The cell is the
most commonly used of primary cells, is
cheap, requires little maintenance and has a
shelf life of about 2 years.
• The Lechlanche cell is suitable only for
intermittent use, applications including
torches, transistor radios, bells, indicator
circuits, gas lighters, controlling switch-gear,
and so on.
 Mercury cell
• Such a cell has an e.m.f. of about 1.3 V which
remains constant for a relatively long time. Its
main advantages over the Lechlanche cell are
its smaller size and its long shelf life. Typical
practical applications include hearing aids,
medical electronics, cameras and for guided
missiles.
 Secondary cells
• Secondary cells can be recharged after use,
that is, the conversion of chemical energy to
electrical energy is reversible and the cell may
be used many times. Examples of secondary
cells include the lead-acid cell and the alkaline
cell. Practical applications of such cells include
car batteries, telephone circuits and for
traction purposes - such as milk delivery vans
and fork lift trucks.
Examples of Secondary cells
 Lead-acid cell
A typical lead-acid cell is constructed of:
(i) A container made of glass, ebonite or
plastic.
(ii) Lead plates
(a)The negative plate (cathode) consists of
spongy lead
(b)The positive plate (anode) is formed by
pressing lead peroxide into the lead grid.
• The plates are interleaved to increase their
effective cross-sectional area and to minimize
internal resistance,
• (iii) Separators made of glass, celluloid or
wood.
• (iv) An electrolyte, which is a mixture of
sulphuric acid and distilled water.
• The relative density (or specific gravity) of a
lead-acid cell, which may be measured using a
hydrometer, varies between about 1.26 when
the cell is fully charged to about 1.19 when
discharged. The terminal p.d. of a lead-acid
cell is about 2 V.
• When a cell supplies current to a load it is said
to be discharging. During discharge:
• (i) The lead peroxide (positive plate) and the
spongy lead (negative plate) are converted
into lead Sulphate
• (ii) The oxygen in the lead peroxide
combines with hydrogen in the electrolyte to
form water. The electrolyte is therefore
weakened and the relative density falls.
• The terminal p.d. of a lead-acid cell when fully
discharged is about 1.8 V.
• A cell is charged by connecting a D.C. supply to
its terminals, the positive terminal of the cell
being connected to the positive terminal of
the supply. The charging current flows in the
reverse direction to the discharge current and
the chemical action are reversed.
• During charging:
• (i) The lead sulphate on the positive and negative plates is
converted back to lead peroxide and lead respectively, and
• (ii) The water content of the electrolyte decreases as
the oxygen released from the electrolyte combines with
the lead of the positive plate. The relative density of
the electrolyte thus increases.
• The colour of the positive plate when fully charged is dark
brown and when discharged is light brown. The colour of
the negative plate when fully charged is gray and when
discharged is light gray.
• Maintenance of a Lead-Acid Battery. The life span of
a lead-acid battery can be lengthened by proper
maintenance. Points to note are given below.
• 1. Re-charge battery when voltage and specific
gravity fall.
• 2. Re-charge battery regularly even if not in
use. .
• 3. Do not add electrolyte to the battery unless there
has been a spillage.
• 4. Keep battery' topped up' with distilled
water above plate level, otherwise air will
attack the plates, causing hydration.
• 5. Do not over-charge, 'boost charge', or over-
discharge a battery. – This makes the plates'
shed' (a common fault in car batteries).
• 6. Keep the terminals free from corrosion by
smearing with petroleum jelly.
• Applications of the Lead-Acid Cell. The lead-
acid cell is used in car batteries, traction
batteries, and stand-by supplies (e.g., Post
Office).
 Alkaline cell
There are two main types of alkaline cell- the
nickel-iron cell and the nickel-cadmium cell. In
both types the positive plate is made of nickel
hydroxide enclosed in finely perforated steel
tubes, the resistance being reduced by the
addition of pure nickel or graphite. The tubes
are assembled into nickel-steel plates.
• In the nickel-iron cell, (sometimes called the
Edison cell or knife cell), the, negative plate is
made of iron oxide, with the resistance being
reduced by a little mercuric oxide, the whole
being enclosed in perforated steel tubes and
assembled in steel plates.
• In the nickel-cadmium cell the nega¬tive plate
is made of cadmium, the electrolyte" in each
type of cell is a solution of potassium
hydroxide, which does not undergo any
chemical change and thus the L quantity, can
be reduced to a minimum.
• The plates are separated by insulating rods
and assembled in steel containers, which are
then enclosed in a non-metallic crate to
insulate the cells from one another. The
average discharge p.d. of an alkaline cell is
about 1.2 V.
 Advantages of alkaline cell
• (i) More robust construction
• (ii) Capable of withstanding heavy charging
and discharging currents without damage
• (iii) Has a longer life
• (iv) For a given capacity is lighter in weight
• (v) Can be left indefinitely in any state of
charge or discharge without damage
• (vi) Is not self-discharging
 Disadvantages of Alkaline cell
(i) Is relatively more expensive
(ii) Requires more cells for a given e.m.f. ¬
(iii) Has a higher internal resistance
(iv) Must be kept sealed
(v) Has a lower efficiency
• Alkaline cells may be used in extremes of
temperature, in conditions where vibration is
experienced or where duties require long idle
periods or heavy discharge currents. Practical
examples includetracdon and marine work,
lighting in railway carriages, military portable
radios and for starting diesel and petrol
engines.
• However, the lead-acid cell is the most common
one in practical use.
• The capacity of a cell is measured in ampere-
hours (Ah). A fully charged 50 Ah battery rated
for 10 h discharge can be discharged at a steady
current of 5 A for 10 h, but if the load current is
increased to 10 A then the battery is discharged
in 3-4 h, since the higher the discharge current,
the lower is the effective capacity of the battery.
 Methods of Charging Batteries
• The methods of charge can be put into four
categories:
• (a) Trickle charge.
• (b) Constant current.
• (c) Constant voltage.
• (d) 'Floating' system.
• Trickle Charging. A small current is passed
through the battery for a long period.
• Constant Current. The charging current is held
constant by means of a variable resistance in
the charging circuit.
• Constant Voltage. The voltage is held constant
throughout the charge by means of a variable
resistance.
• Floating System. In this method (used in car-
charging systems) the d.c. generator re-
charges the battery when it falls below a
certain voltage. The charging current is auto-
matically cutout when a certain voltage is
reached, so that the battery does not feed
back into the generator.