2.

Semiconductors and Diodes

By: P R Dhungana
Cosmos College of Management and Technology
 Conductors, Semiconductors, and
Insulators
A useful way to visualize the difference between conductors,
insulators and semiconductors is to plot the available energies
for electrons in the materials. Instead of having discrete energies
as in the case of free atoms, the available energy states form
bands. Crucial to the conduction process is whether or not there
are electrons in the conduction band. In insulators the electrons
in the valence band are separated by a large gap from the
conduction band, in conductors like metals the valence band
overlaps the conduction band, and in semiconductors there is a
small enough gap between the valence and conduction bands
that thermal or other excitations can bridge the gap. With such a
small gap, the presence of a small percentage of a doping
material can increase conductivity dramatically
Silicon Energy Bands
Germanium Energy Bands
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
A silicon crystal is different
from an insulator because
at any temperature above
absolute zero
temperature, there is a
finite probability that an
electron in the lattice will
be knocked loose from its
position, leaving behind
an electron deficiency
called a "hole".

The term intrinsic here distinguishes between the properties of

pure "intrinsic" silicon and the dramatically different properties of
doped n-type or p-type semiconductors.
 Semiconductor Current
Both electrons and holes contribute to current flow in an
intrinsic semiconductor.
The current which will flow in an intrinsic semiconductor
consists of both electron and hole current.

That is, the electrons

which have been freed
from their lattice positions
into the conduction band
can move through the
material.
In addition, other electrons can hop between lattice
positions to fill the vacancies left by the freed
electrons.

This additional mechanism

is called hole conduction
because it is as if the holes
are migrating across the
material in the direction
opposite to the free
electron movement.
The current flow in an intrinsic semiconductor is highly
temperature dependent.
 Tips for Numericals
• Since holes in pure semiconductor are created by the electrons
that are freed from their covalent bond, the no. of free electrons
must be equal to no. of holes.
i.e. electron density per cm3= hole density per cm3­­
• If ni is intrinsic electron density and pi is hole density, then

For Ge the charge carrier density is n i= pi=2.4X1013carriers/cm3

For Si the charge carrier density is n i= pi=1.5X1010carriers/cm3

Remember that 1 cubic centimeter of silicon contains more than

1022 atoms.
 When an electric potential is applied across a
semiconductor, this causes free electrons to drift in
one direction and holes to drift in its opposite
direction.
 Since the current is the total effect of electron and
hole movement, the two currents are added. This sum
current is called drift current.
 Drift current depends upon the following factors:
Ability to move the carriers through the
semiconductor- drift mobility (denoted by µ)
Unit electronic charge
Applied external field
Electron and hole densities
The cross sectional area of the semiconductor bar.
Hole mobility is denoted by µp and electron mobility is
denoted by µn.
Silicon Germanium
µn=0.14 m2/V.s µn=0.38 m2/V.s
µp=0.05 m2/V.s µp=0.18 m2/V.s

The unit of carrier velocity is (m/s) and field intensity is

(V/m). Therefore unit of µ is m2/V.s.

Where vn and vp are electron and hole velocities

Total current density= electron current density + hole current
density

Where, J = current density, A/m2

n, p = electrons and hole densities in, carriers/m3
qn = qp = unit
. electron charge= 1.6 X 10 -19
coulombs
µn, µp = electron and hole mobility, m2/(V.s)
E= electric field intensity, V/m
vn, vp = electron and hole velocities, m/s
The conductivity the semiconductor can be computed
using:
 Assignment:
1. A potential difference of 10 V is applied across the length
of the intrinsic silicon bar having cross section (10mm X
10mm) and length 5 cm. Assume that ni = 1.5 X 1010
electrons/cm3, µn = 0.14m2/(V.s), and µp = 0.05 m2/((V.s),
find
a) Electron and hole velocities
b) The electron and hole components of the current density
c) The total current density
d) The total current in the bar.
e) Compute the conductivity and resistivity of the Si bar
f) Find the current in the bar using the result of (e).
 Electrons and Holes
In an intrinsic semiconductor like silicon at temperatures
above absolute zero, there will be some electrons which
are excited across the band gap into the conduction band
and which can produce current. When the electron in pure
silicon crosses the gap, it leaves behind an electron vacancy
or "hole" in the regular silicon lattice. Under the influence
of an external voltage, both the electron and the hole can
move across the material. In an n-type semiconductor, the
dopant contributes extra electrons, dramatically increasing
the conductivity. In a p-type semiconductor, the dopant
produces extra vacancies or holes, which likewise increase
the conductivity. It is however the behavior of the
p-n junction which is the key to the enormous variety of
solid-state electronic devices.
The Doping of Semiconductors

The addition of a small percentage of foreign

atoms in the regular crystal lattice of silicon or
germanium produces dramatic changes in
their electrical properties, producing n-type
and p-type semiconductors.
Pentavalent
impurities
Impurity atomw
with 5
valence electrons
produce n-type
semiconductors by
contributing extra
electrons.

Trivalent impurities
Impurity atoms with 3 valence electrons produce p-type
semiconductors by producing a "hole" or electron
deficiency.
P- and N- Type Semiconductors
 N-Type Semiconductor
The addition of pentavalent impurities such as antimony, arsenic
or phosphorous contributes free electrons, greatly increasing
the conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor.
 P-Type Semiconductor
The addition of trivalent
impurities such as boron,
aluminum or gallium to an
intrinsic semiconductor creates
deficiencies of valence
electrons,called "holes".
 Tips for Numericals
While forming N-type and P-type extrinsic semiconductor by
doping, the concentration of electrons and holes increase
correspondingly. But an important relationship between the
electron and hole densities in most practical semiconductor
materials is given by:

If
 Assignment:

2. A bar of silicon with intrinsic electron density

1.4X1016 electrons/m3 is doped with impurity
atoms until the hole density is 8.5X10 21
holes/m3. The mobilities of the electrons and
holes are µn=0.14m2/(V.s) and µp= 0.05 m2/(V.s).

a) Find the electron density of the intrinsic material.

b) Find the extrinsic conductivity.
c) Find the type (N-type, or P-type) of that
semiconductor material.
Bands for Doped Semiconductors
The application of band theory to n-type and p-type
semiconductors shows that extra levels have been added by
the impurities. In n-type material there are electron energy
levels near the top of the band gap so that they can be easily
excited into the conduction band. In p-type material, extra
holes in the band gap allow excitation of valence band
electrons, leaving mobile holes in the valence band.
 P-N Junction
• One of the crucial keys to solid state electronics is the
nature of the P-N junction.
• When p-type and n-type materials are placed in
contact with each other, the junction behaves very
differently than either type of material alone.
• Specifically, current will flow readily in one direction (
forward biased) but not in the other (reverse biased),
creating the basic diode.
• This non-reversing behavior arises from the nature of
the charge transport process in the two types of
materials.
The open circles on the left side of the junction above represent
"holes" or deficiencies of electrons in the lattice which can act like
positive charge carriers. The solid circles on the right of the junction
represent the available electrons from the n-type dopant. Near the
junction, electrons diffuse across to combine with holes, creating a "
depletion region". The energy level sketch above right is a way to
visualize the equilibrium condition of the P-N junction. The upward
direction in the diagram represents increasing electron energy.
 Depletion Region
When a p-n junction is formed, some of the free electrons in the n-
region diffuse across the junction and combine with holes to form
negative ions. In so doing they leave behind positive ions at the
donor impurity sites.
Depletion Region Details

In the p-type region there

are holes from the acceptor
impurities and in the n-type
region there are extra
.

electrons.
When a p-n junction is
formed, some of the
electrons from the n-region
which have reached the
conduction band are free to
diffuse across the junction
and combine with holes.
Filling a hole makes a
negative ion and leaves behind
a positive ion on the n-side. A
space charge builds up,
creating a depletion region
which inhibits any further
electron transfer unless it is
helped by putting a
forward bias on the junction.
 Tips for Numericals
• As you know, the potential difference exist
across the junction due to the oppositely
charged sides of the junction. This potential is
called barrier potential because it acts like a
barrier to diffusion current.
• Value of diffusion potential depends on
– doping levels in P and N regions
– the type of materisl(Si or Ge)
– and the temperature
 • Above expression shows the direct dependence of
barrier potential with the temperature.
• The quantity kT/q in above equation has the unit of
volts and is known as Thermal Voltage, VT. i.e.

Assignment:
(3) A silicon PN junction is formed from P material doped
with 1022 acceptors/m3 and N material doped with
1.2X1024 donors/m3. Find the thermal voltage and barrier
voltage at:
(a) 25⁰C, and (b) 50⁰C
Bias effect on electrons
in depletion zone
Equilibrium of junction
Coulomb force from ions prevents further
migration across the p-n junction.

The electrons which had migrated across from the N- to the P- region
in the forming of the depletion layer have now reached equilibrium.

Other electrons from the N

region cannot migrate because
they are repelled by the negative
ions in the P region and attracted
by the positive ions in the N
region.
 Reverse bias
An applied voltage with the
indicated polarity further
impedes the flow of
electrons across the
junction.

For conduction in the device, electrons from the N region must

move to the junction and combine with holes in the P region. A
reverse voltage drives the electrons away from the junction,
preventing conduction.
Forward bias
An applied voltage in the
forward direction as indicated
assists electrons in overcoming
the coulomb barrier of the
space charge in
depletion region. Electrons will
flow with very small resistance
in the forward direction.
 Forward Biased P-N Junction
Forward biasing the p-n junction drives holes to the junction
from the p-type material and electrons to the junction from
the n-type material. At the junction the electrons and holes
combine so that a continuous current can be maintained.
 Reverse Biased P-N Junction
The application of a reverse voltage to the p-n junction
will cause a transient current to flow as both electrons
and holes are pulled away from the junction. When the
potential formed by the widened depletion layer equals
the applied voltage, the current will cease except for the
small thermal current.
 The P-N Junction Diode
The nature of the p-n junction is that it will conduct
current in the forward direction but not in the reverse
direction. It is therefore a basic tool for rectification in
the building of DC power supplies.
 Junction Capacitance
• The forward and reverse biased P-N junction
exhibits capacitive effects. There are two
types capacitance – one of which becomes
dominant in each case.

1.Transition capacitance

2.Diffusion capacitance
 Transition Capacitance
A reverse bias causes majority carrier to move away from the
junction, there by uncovering more immobile charges. Therefore the
thickness of space-charge region increases with reverse voltage.
This increase in uncovered charge with applied voltage may be
considered as a capacitive effect.

Knowledge of CT is important in considering a

diode as a circuit element.
Transition capacitance is also known as Space
charge capacitance, barrier capacitance, or
the depletion region capacitance.
Transition Capacitance…………..

• When the P-N junction is reverse biased, the

depletion region acts like dielectric with P and N-type
regions metallic plates. Therefore it forms parallel
plate capacitor. This is called Transition capacitance.

• The analogy of transition capacitance is similar to

that of parallel plate capacitor.

• Calculated using formula:

 Transition Capacitance…………..
• Typical value of transition capacitance is 40pF (range 10 to
100pF).
• Thickness of transition depends on the amount of reverse
bias. So CT is variable with applied bias.
• This capacitive property is useful in making useful device
called the vericap or varactor.
• The voltage dependent expression of transition capacitance
is:

Where VK = Knee Voltage

VR = applied reverse bias voltage
K = Constant (1/2 for alloalloy junction and 1/3 fro
diffused junction)
Expression for Transition Capacitance
 Diffusion Capacitance
• The diffusion capacitance is the capacitance present in the
forward biased P-N junction diode and this account for the time
delay in moving charges across the junction by diffusion process.

• Diffusion capacitance varies directly with the magnitude of

forward current.

• CD is variable with applied bias.

• Typical value is 0.02µF.( 5000 times CT) [Range 0.1µF to 1µF]

 Diffusion Capacitance………….
• Since the no. of charge carriers left in depletion region is
proportional to forward current, CD∞IF .

• Its significance is in diode switching time. If CD is large

switchover cannot be rapid.
• Expression for diffusion capacitance is:

Where I = forward current

VT= Thermal voltage=kT/q
Η = constant
Τp = average life time of carrier= Q/I
 Expression for Diffusion Capacitance
For quantitative analysis let us
assume that one side of the
diode, say, P material, is so
heavily doped in comparison
with N-side that the current I
is carried across the junction
entirely by the holes moving
from P to the N-side. The
excess minority charge Q will
then exist on the N-side.
(given by the shaded area in
figure multiplied by the diode
cross section A and the
electronic charge q)
 Diode Switching time:
When the diode is driven from the reverse biased condition to the
forward biased state or in opposite direction, the diode response
is accompanied by a transient, and an interval of time elapses
before the diodes recovers its steady state. These transition states
are:
Forward recovery

• Forward recovery time tfr is the time difference between the 10%
opint of the diode voltage and the time when this voltage reaches
and remains within 10% of its final value

• Forward recovery tfr does not usually constitute a serious practical

problem, therefore it is not considered very seriously.
 Reverse recovery
Let,
np0= concentration of minority carriers at n side
at the condition of thermal equilibrium
pn0= concentration of minority carriers at p side
at the condition of thermal equilibrium
np= minority carrier density at n side when the
external bias is applied
pn= minority carrier density at p side when the
external bias is applied
(pn – pn0)= excess minority carrier density at p-
side
(np – np0 )= excess minority carrier density at n-
Reverse recovery……………….
Figure at the right depicts
the minority carrier profile
at junction as a function of
distance from the junction
when the junction is
forward biased.

When the diode is immediately turned

off from forward conduction state to
the reverse non-conducting state, then
the diode current will not immediately
fall to it’s final steady state reverse
voltage value until the minority carrier
distribution reduces to the value as
shown in fig at the right.
 Reverse recovery……………….

Unless the excess or injected carrier density reaches to zero, the

diode will keep on conducting, and the current at this condition is
determined by the external resistance in the diode circuit.

This time elapsed to restore completely all the carrier from the
time of reverse biasing the diode is called the reverse recovery
time.

This is the very considerable factor to be considered while

designing the switching circuits where the diode is used as a
switch.
Reverse recovery……………….

Storage and
transition times:
For a long time, and up to
the time t1, the voltage
vi=VF has been applied to
the diode as shown by 1st
graph. Up to this time,
i=IF=VF/RL(shown in third
graph)

The excess hole density at

the junction is shown in
second graph.