UNIT 2

Knowledge Representation
• Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of
Artificial intelligence which concerned with AI agents thinking and
how thinking contributes to intelligent behavior of agents.
• It is responsible for representing information about the real world
so that a computer can understand and can utilize this knowledge
to solve the complex real world problems such as diagnosis a
medical condition or communicating with humans in natural
language.
• It is also a way which describes how we can represent knowledge
in artificial intelligence. Knowledge representation is not just
storing data into some database, but it also enables an intelligent
machine to learn from that knowledge and experiences so that it
can behave intelligently like a human.
What to Represent
• Following are the kind of knowledge which needs to be represented in AI
systems:
• Object: All the facts about objects in our world domain. E.g., Guitars
contains strings, trumpets are brass instruments.
• Events: Events are the actions which occur in our world.
• Performance: It describe behavior which involves knowledge about how to
do things.
• Meta-knowledge: It is knowledge about what we know.
• Facts: Facts are the truths about the real world and what we represent.
• Knowledge-Base: The central component of the knowledge-based agents
is the knowledge base. It is represented as KB. The Knowledgebase is a
group of the Sentences (Here, sentences are used as a technical term and
not identical with the English language).
Types of Knowledge
Cont.
1. Declarative Knowledge:
• Declarative knowledge is to know about something.
• It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
• It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarativesentences.
• It is simpler than procedural language.

2. Procedural Knowledge
• It is also known as imperative knowledge.
• Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for knowing how to do
something.
• It can be directly applied to any task.
• It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
• Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.
Cont.
3. Meta-knowledge:
• Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-knowledge.

4. Heuristic knowledge:
• Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a filed or subject.
• Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences, awareness of
approaches, and which are good to work but not guaranteed.

5. Structural knowledge:
• Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.
• It describes relationships between various concepts such as kind of, part of, and
grouping of something.
• It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or objects.
AI Knowledge Cycle
Cont.
• The above diagram is showing how an AI system can interact
with the real world and what components help it to show
intelligence. AI system has Perception component by which it
retrieves information from its environment. It can be visual,
audio or another form of sensory input. The learning component
is responsible for learning from data captured by Perception
comportment. In the complete cycle, the main components are
knowledge representation and Reasoning. These two
components are involved in showing the intelligence in
machine-like humans. These two components are independent
with each other but also coupled together. The planning and
execution depend on analysis of Knowledge representation and
reasoning.
Approaches to Knowledge
Representation
Cont.
Cont.
Cont.
Cont.
Techniques of Knowledge
Representation
LOGICAL REPRESENTATION
• Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals with propositions and has no
ambiguity in representation. Logical representation means drawing a conclusion based on various conditions.
This representation lays down some important communication rules. It consists of precisely defined syntax and
semantics which supports the sound inference. Each sentence can be translated into logics using syntax and
semantics.

Syntax
• Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal sentences in the logic.
• It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.
• How to write those symbols.
Semantics:
• Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the logic.
• Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.
• Logical representation can be categorized into mainly two logics:
1. Propositional Logics
2. Predicate logics
Cont.
• Advantages of logical representation:
1.Logical representation enables us to do logical
reasoning.
2.Logical representation is the basis for the programming
languages.
• Disadvantages of logical Representation:
1.Logical representations have some restrictions and are
challenging to work with.
2.Logical representation technique may not be very
natural, and inference may not be so efficient.
Semantic Network Representation
• Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge
representation. In Semantic networks, we can represent our
knowledge in the form of graphical networks. This network consists of
nodes representing objects and arcs which describe the relationship
between those objects. Semantic networks can categorize the object
in different forms and can also link those objects. Semantic networks
are easy to understand and can be easily extended.
Cont.
• This representation consist of mainly two types of relations:
1. IS-A relation (Inheritance)
2. Kind-of-relation
• Example: Following are some statements which we need to represent in the form of nodes and arcs.
• Statements:
1. Jerry is a cat.
2. Jerry is a mammal
3. Jerry is owned by Priya.
4. Jerry is brown colored.
5. All Mammals are animal.
Cont.
• Drawbacks in Semantic representation:
1.Semantic networks take more computational time at runtime as we need to traverse the
complete network tree to answer some questions. It might be possible in the worst case
scenario that after traversing the entire tree, we find that the solution does not exist in this
network.
2.Semantic networks try to model human-like memory (Which has 1015 neurons and links) to
store the information, but in practice, it is not possible to build such a vast semantic
network.
3.These types of representations are inadequate as they do not have any equivalent
quantifier, e.g., for all, for some, none, etc.
4.Semantic networks do not have any standard definition for the link names.
5.These networks are not intelligent and depend on the creator of the system.
• Advantages of Semantic network:
1.Semantic networks are a natural representation of knowledge.
2.Semantic networks convey meaning in a transparent manner.
3.These networks are simple and easily understandable.
FRAME REPRESENTATION
• A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of attributes and its values to describe an
entity in the world. Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge into substructures by
representing stereotypes situations. It consists of a collection of slots and slot values. These slots may be of
any type and sizes. Slots have names and values which are called facets.
• Facets: The various aspects of a slot is known as Facets. Facets are features of frames which enable us
to put constraints on the frames. Example: IF-NEEDED facts are called when data of any particular slot is
needed. A frame may consist of any number of slots, and a slot may include any number of facets and facets
may have any number of values. A frame is also known as slot-filter knowledge
representation in artificial intelligence.
• Frames are derived from semantic networks and later evolved into our modern-day
classes and objects. A single frame is not much useful. Frames system consist of a
collection of frames which are connected. In the frame, knowledge about an object or
event can be stored together in the knowledge base. The frame is a type of technology
which is widely used in various applications including Natural language processing and
machine visions.
Cont.
Cont.
Cont.
• Advantages of frame representation:
1.The frame knowledge representation makes the programming easier by grouping
the related data.
2.The frame representation is comparably flexible and used by many applications in
AI.
3.It is very easy to add slots for new attribute and relations.
4.It is easy to include default data and to search for missing values.
5.Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.
• Disadvantages of frame representation:
1.In frame system inference mechanism is not be easily processed.
2.Inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by frame representation.
3.Frame representation has a much generalized approach.
PRODUCTION RULE
• Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which mean, "If condition then
action". It has mainly three parts:
• The set of production rules
• Working Memory
• The recognize-act-cycle
• In production rules agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then production
rule fires and corresponding action is carried out. The condition part of the rule determines
which rule may be applied to a problem. And the action part carries out the associated
problem-solving steps. This complete process is called a recognize-act cycle.
• The working memory contains the description of the current state of problems-solving and rule
can write knowledge to the working memory. This knowledge match and may fire other rules.
• If there is a new situation (state) generates, then multiple production rules will be fired
together, this is called conflict set. In this situation, the agent needs to select a rule from
these sets, and it is called a conflict resolution.
Cont.
Cont.
• Advantages of Production rule:
1.The production rules are expressed in natural language.
2.The production rules are highly modular, so we can
easily remove, add or modify an individual rule.
• Disadvantages of Production rule:
1.Production rule system does not exhibit any learning
capabilities, as it does not store the result of the
problem for the future uses.
2.During the execution of the program, many rules may
be active hence rule-based production systems are
inefficient
Propositional Logic
• Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic
where all the statements are made by propositions. A
proposition is a declarative statement which is either
true or false. It is a technique of knowledge
representation in logical and mathematical form.
• Example:
1. It is Sunday.
2. The Sun rises from West (False proposition)
3. 3+3= 7(False proposition)
4. 5 is a prime number.
Cont.
• The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the knowledge
representation. There are two types of Propositions:
1.Atomic Propositions
2.Compound propositions
• Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of a single
proposition symbol. These are the sentences which must be either true or false.
1. 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.
2. "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.
• Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by combining simpler or atomic
propositions, using parenthesis and logical connectives.
• Example:
1. "It is raining today, and street is wet."
2. "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."
• Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler
propositions or representing a sentence logically. We
can create compound propositions with the help of
logical connectives. There are mainly five connectives,
which are given as follows:
Cont.
Cont.
First Order Logic
• In propositional logic, we can only represent the facts,
which are either true or false. PL is not sufficient to
represent the complex sentences or natural language
statements. The propositional logic has very limited
expressive power. Consider the following sentence,
which we cannot represent using PL logic.

"Some humans are intelligent", or

• "Sachin likes cricket."
• To represent the above statements, PL logic is not
sufficient, so we required some more powerful logic,
such as first-order logic.
Cont.
• First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence.
It is an extension to propositional logic.
• FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements in a
concise way.
• First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate logic.
First-order logic is a powerful language that develops information about the objects
in a more easy way and can also express the relationship between those objects.
• First-order logic (like natural language) does not only assume that the world
contains facts like propositional logic but also assumes the following things in the
world:
• Objects: A, B, people, numbers, colors, wars, theories, squares, pits, wumpus, ......
• Relations: It can be unary relation such as: red, round, is adjacent, or n-any relation
such as: the sister of, brother of, has color, comes between
• Function: Father of, best friend, third inning of, end of, ......
Basic Elements of First Order Logic
Syntax
• As a natural language, first-order logic also has two main parts:
• Syntax
• Semantics
• Syntax of First-Order logic:
• The syntax of FOL determines which collection of symbols is a logical expression in first-order
logic. The basic syntactic elements of first-order logic are symbols. We write statements in short-
hand notation in FOL.
Cont.
• Atomic sentences:
• Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic.
These sentences are formed from a predicate symbol followed by a
parenthesis with a sequence of terms.
• We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2,
......, term n).
• Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi,
Ajay).
Chinky is a cat: => cat (Chinky).
• Complex Sentences:
• Complex sentences are made by combining atomic sentences
using connectives.
Cont.
Quantifiers in First Order Logic
• A quantifier is a language element which generates
quantification, and quantification specifies the quantity
of specimen in the universe of discourse.
• These are the symbols that permit to determine or
identify the range and scope of the variable in the
logical expression. There are two types of quantifier:
• Universal Quantifier, (for all, everyone, everything)
• Existential quantifier, (for some, at least one).
Universal Quantifier
• Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation, which
specifies that the statement within its range is true for everything or
every instance of a particular thing.
• The Universal quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀, which resembles
an inverted A.
• IF X is a variable then VX is read as

• For all x
• For each x
• For every x.
Cont.
Existential Quantifier
• Existential quantifiers are the type of quantifiers, which express that the
statement within its scope is true for at least one instance of something.
• It is denoted by the logical operator ∃, which resembles as inverted E.
When it is used with a predicate variable then it is called as an existential
quantifier.
• If x is a variable, then existential quantifier will be ∃x or ∃(x). And it will be
read as:
•
There exists a 'x.'
• For some 'x.'
• For at least one 'x.'
Cont.
Inference Rule in First Order Logic
• Universal Generalization
• Universal Instantiation
• Existential Instantiation
• Existential introduction
Universal Generalization
Universal Instantiation
Existential Instantiation
• Example:
• From the given sentence: ∃x Crown(x) ∧ OnHead(x, John),
• So we can infer: Crown(K) ∧ OnHead( K, John), as long as
K does not appear in the knowledge base.
• The above used K is a constant symbol, which is
called Skolem constant.
• The Existential instantiation is a special case
of Skolemization process.
Existential Generalization
Examples of FOL
Cont.
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Cont.
Forward chaining
• Forward chaining is also known as a forward deduction or forward reasoning method when using
an inference engine. Forward chaining is a form of reasoning which start with atomic sentences in
the knowledge base and applies inference rules (Modus Ponens) in the forward direction to
extract more data until a goal is reached.
• The Forward-chaining algorithm starts from known facts, triggers all rules
whose premises are satisfied, and add their conclusion to the known facts.
This process repeats until the problem is solved.
• Properties
• It is a down-up approach, as it moves from bottom to top.
• It is a process of making a conclusion based on known facts or data, by
starting from the initial state and reaches the goal state.
• Forward-chaining approach is also called as data-driven as we reach to the
goal using available data.
• Forward -chaining approach is commonly used in the expert system, such as
CLIPS, business, and production rule systems.
Cont.
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