K NO W L E D G E

RE P R E S E N TA T I O N
I N AI
WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE
REPRESENTATION?
• KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION IN AI DESCRIBES THE REPRESENTATION OF KNOWLEDGE.
BASICALLY, IT IS A STUDY OF HOW THE BELIEFS, INTENTIONS, AND JUDGMENTS OF
AN INTELLIGENT AGENT CAN BE EXPRESSED SUITABLY FOR AUTOMATED REASONING.

• ONE OF THE PRIMARY PURPOSES OF KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION INCLUDES MODELING

INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR FOR AN AGENT.

• KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION AND REASONING (KR, KRR) REPRESENTS INFORMATION

FROM THE REAL WORLD FOR A COMPUTER TO UNDERSTAND AND THEN UTILIZE THIS
KNOWLEDGE TO SOLVE COMPLEX REAL-LIFE PROBLEMS LIKE COMMUNICATING WITH
HUMAN BEINGS IN NATURAL LANGUAGE. KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION IN AI IS NOT JUST
ABOUT STORING DATA IN A DATABASE, IT ALLOWS A MACHINE TO LEARN FROM THAT
KNOWLEDGE AND BEHAVE INTELLIGENTLY LIKE A HUMAN BEING
THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE THAT NEED
TO BE REPRESENTED IN AI INCLUDE :
• OBJECTS
• EVENTS
• PERFORMANCE
• FACTS
• META-KNOWLEDGE
• KNOWLEDGE-BASE
DIFFERENT TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
•Declarative Knowledge – It includes
concepts, facts, and objects and expressed in
a declarative sentence.
•Structural Knowledge – It is a basic
problem-solving knowledge that describes the
relationship between concepts and objects.
•Procedural Knowledge – This is responsible
for knowing how to do something and
includes rules, strategies, procedures, etc.
•Meta Knowledge – Meta Knowledge defines
knowledge about other types of Knowledge.
•Heuristic Knowledge – This represents
some expert knowledge in the field or subject.
 CYCLE OF KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION IN AI

• ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS USUALLY

CONSIST OF VARIOUS COMPONENTS TO DISPLAY
THEIR INTELLIGENT BEHAVIOR. SOME OF THESE
COMPONENTS INCLUDE:

• PERCEPTION
• LEARNING
• KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION &
REASONING

• PLANNING
• EXECUTION
 THE ABOVE DIAGRAM SHOWS THE INTERACTION OF AN AI SYSTEM WITH
THE REAL WORLD AND THE COMPONENTS INVOLVED IN SHOWING
INTELLIGENCE:
•The main component in the cycle is Knowledge
• THE PERCEPTION COMPONENT RETRIEVES DATA OR Representation and Reasoning which shows the human-
INFORMATION FROM THE ENVIRONMENT. WITH THE like intelligence in the machines. Knowledge representation
HELP OF THIS COMPONENT, YOU CAN RETRIEVE DATA is all about understanding intelligence. Instead of trying to
FROM THE ENVIRONMENT, FIND OUT THE SOURCE OF understand or build brains from the bottom up, its goal is to
NOISES AND CHECK IF THE AI WAS DAMAGED BY understand and build intelligent behavior from the top-down
ANYTHING. ALSO, IT DEFINES HOW TO RESPOND WHEN
and focus on what an agent needs to know in order to
ANY SENSE HAS BEEN DETECTED.
behave intelligently. Also, it defines how automated
• THEN, THERE IS THE LEARNING COMPONENT THAT reasoning procedures can make this knowledge available as
LEARNS FROM THE CAPTURED DATA BY THE needed.
PERCEPTION COMPONENT. THE GOAL IS TO BUILD •The Planning and Execution components depend on the
COMPUTERS THAT CAN BE TAUGHT INSTEAD OF
analysis of knowledge representation and reasoning. Here,
PROGRAMMING THEM. LEARNING FOCUSES ON THE
planning includes giving an initial state, finding their
PROCESS OF SELF-IMPROVEMENT. IN ORDER TO LEARN
preconditions and effects, and a sequence of actions to
NEW THINGS, THE SYSTEM REQUIRES KNOWLEDGE
ACQUISITION, INFERENCE, ACQUISITION OF
achieve a state in which a particular goal holds. Now once
HEURISTICS, FASTER SEARCHES, ETC. the planning is completed, the final stage is the execution of
the entire process.
WHAT IS THE RELATION BETWEEN
KNOWLEDGE & INTELLIGENCE?

• IN THE REAL WORLD, KNOWLEDGE PLAYS

A VITAL ROLE IN INTELLIGENCE AS WELL
AS CREATING ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE .
IT DEMONSTRATES THE INTELLIGENT
BEHAVIOR IN AI AGENTS OR SYSTEMS.
IT IS POSSIBLE FOR AN AGENT OR
SYSTEM TO ACT ACCURATELY ON SOME
INPUT ONLY WHEN IT HAS THE
KNOWLEDGE OR EXPERIENCE ABOUT
THE INPUT.
In this example, there is one decision-maker whose actions are justified
by sensing the environment and using knowledge. But, if we remove the
knowledge part here, it will not be able to display any intelligent behavior
TECHNIQUES OF KNOWLEDGE
REPRESENTATION IN AI
LOGICAL REPRESENTATION

• LOGICAL REPRESENTATION IS A LANGUAGE WITH SOME DEFINITE RULES WHICH DEAL WITH
PROPOSITIONS AND HAS NO AMBIGUITY IN REPRESENTATION. IT REPRESENTS A CONCLUSION BASED
ON VARIOUS CONDITIONS AND LAYS DOWN SOME IMPORTANT COMMUNICATION RULES.

• ALSO, IT CONSISTS OF PRECISELY DEFINED SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS WHICH SUPPORTS THE SOUND
INFERENCE. EACH SENTENCE CAN BE TRANSLATED INTO LOGICS USING SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS.
• ADVANTAGES:
• LOGICAL REPRESENTATION HELPS TO PERFORM LOGICAL REASONING.
• THIS REPRESENTATION IS THE BASIS FOR THE PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES.
• DISADVANTAGES:
• LOGICAL REPRESENTATIONS HAVE SOME RESTRICTIONS AND ARE
CHALLENGING TO WORK WITH.

• THIS TECHNIQUE MAY NOT BE VERY NATURAL, AND INFERENCE MAY NOT BE
VERY EFFICIENT.
 SEMANTIC NETWORK
REPRESENTATION
• SEMANTIC NETWORKS WORK AS
AN ALTERNATIVE OF PREDICATE LOGIC FOR
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION. IN SEMANTIC
NETWORKS, YOU CAN REPRESENT YOUR KNOWLEDGE
IN THE FORM OF GRAPHICAL NETWORKS. THIS
NETWORK CONSISTS OF NODES REPRESENTING
OBJECTS AND ARCS WHICH DESCRIBE THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THOSE OBJECTS. ALSO, IT
CATEGORIZES THE OBJECT IN DIFFERENT FORMS AND
LINKS THOSE OBJECTS.

• THIS REPRESENTATION CONSIST OF TWO TYPES OF

RELATIONS:

• IS-A RELATION (INHERITANCE)

• KIND-OF-RELATION
• ADVANTAGES:
• SEMANTIC NETWORKS ARE A NATURAL REPRESENTATION OF KNOWLEDGE.
• ALSO, IT CONVEYS MEANING IN A TRANSPARENT MANNER.
• THESE NETWORKS ARE SIMPLE AND EASY TO UNDERSTAND.
• DISADVANTAGES:
• SEMANTIC NETWORKS TAKE MORE COMPUTATIONAL TIME AT RUNTIME.
• ALSO, THESE ARE INADEQUATE AS THEY DO NOT HAVE ANY EQUIVALENT
QUANTIFIERS.

• THESE NETWORKS ARE NOT INTELLIGENT AND DEPEND ON THE CREATOR OF

THE SYSTEM.
FRAME REPRESENTATION
• A FRAME IS A RECORD LIKE STRUCTURE THAT CONSISTS OF A COLLECTION OF ATTRIBUTES AND
VALUES TO DESCRIBE AN ENTITY IN THE WORLD. THESE ARE THE AI DATA STRUCTURE THAT DIVIDES
KNOWLEDGE INTO SUBSTRUCTURES BY REPRESENTING STEREOTYPES SITUATIONS.

• BASICALLY, IT CONSISTS OF A COLLECTION OF SLOTS AND SLOT VALUES OF ANY TYPE AND SIZE.
SLOTS HAVE NAMES AND VALUES WHICH ARE CALLED FACETS.

Advantages:
•It makes the programming easier by grouping the related data.
•Frame representation is easy to understand and visualize.
•It is very easy to add slots for new attributes and relations.
•Also, it is easy to include default data and search for missing values.

Disadvantages:
•In frame system inference, the mechanism cannot be easily processed.
•The inference mechanism cannot be smoothly proceeded by frame representation.
•It has a very generalized approach.
PRODUCTION RULES
• INPRODUCTION RULES, AGENT CHECKS FOR THE CONDITION AND IF THE
CONDITION EXISTS THEN PRODUCTION RULE FIRES AND CORRESPONDING ACTION IS
CARRIED OUT. THE CONDITION PART OF THE RULE DETERMINES WHICH RULE MAY BE
APPLIED TO A PROBLEM. WHEREAS, THE ACTION PART CARRIES OUT THE
ASSOCIATED PROBLEM-SOLVING STEPS. THIS COMPLETE PROCESS IS CALLED A
RECOGNIZE-ACT CYCLE.

• THE PRODUCTION RULES SYSTEM CONSISTS OF THREE MAIN PARTS:

• THE SET OF PRODUCTION RULES
• WORKING MEMORY
• THE RECOGNIZE-ACT-CYCLE
• ADVANTAGES:
• THE PRODUCTION RULES ARE EXPRESSED IN NATURAL LANGUAGE.
• THE PRODUCTION RULES ARE HIGHLY MODULAR AND CAN BE EASILY
REMOVED OR MODIFIED.

• DISADVANTAGES:
• IT DOES NOT EXHIBITANY LEARNING CAPABILITIES AND DOES NOT STORE
THE RESULT OF THE PROBLEM FOR FUTURE USES.

• DURING THE EXECUTION OF THE PROGRAM, MANY RULES MAY BE ACTIVE.

THUS, RULE-BASED PRODUCTION SYSTEMS ARE INEFFICIENT.
REPRESENTATION
REQUIREMENTS
• A GOOD KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION SYSTEM MUST HAVE PROPERTIES SUCH AS:
• REPRESENTATIONAL ACCURACY: IT SHOULD REPRESENT ALL KINDS OF REQUIRED
KNOWLEDGE.

• INFERENTIAL ADEQUACY: IT SHOULD BE ABLE TO MANIPULATE THE REPRESENTATIONAL

STRUCTURES TO PRODUCE NEW KNOWLEDGE CORRESPONDING TO THE EXISTING
STRUCTURE.

• INFERENTIAL EFFICIENCY: THE ABILITY TO DIRECT THE INFERENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

MECHANISM INTO THE MOST PRODUCTIVE DIRECTIONS BY STORING APPROPRIATE GUIDES.

• ACQUISITIONAL EFFICIENCY: THE ABILITY TO ACQUIRE NEW KNOWLEDGE EASILY USING

AUTOMATIC METHODS.
APPROACHES TO KNOWLEDGE
REPRESENTATION IN AI
1.SIMPLE RELATIONAL KNOWLEDGE
IT IS THE SIMPLEST WAY OF STORING FACTS WHICH USES THE RELATIONAL METHOD.
HERE, ALL THE FACTS ABOUT A SET OF THE OBJECT ARE SET OUT SYSTEMATICALLY IN
COLUMNS. ALSO, THIS APPROACH OF KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION IS FAMOUS IN
DATABASE SYSTEMS WHERE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIFFERENT ENTITIES IS
REPRESENTED. THUS, THERE IS LITTLE OPPORTUNITY FOR INFERENCE.
2. INHERITABLE KNOWLEDGE

• IN THE INHERITABLE KNOWLEDGE

APPROACH, ALL DATA MUST BE STORED
INTO A HIERARCHY OF CLASSES AND
SHOULD BE ARRANGED IN A GENERALIZED
FORM OR A HIERARCHAL MANNER. ALSO,
THIS APPROACH CONTAINS INHERITABLE
KNOWLEDGE WHICH SHOWS A RELATION
BETWEEN INSTANCE AND CLASS, AND IT IS
CALLED INSTANCE RELATION. IN THIS
APPROACH, OBJECTS AND VALUES ARE
REPRESENTED IN BOXED NODES.
3. INFERENTIAL KNOWLEDGE

• THE INFERENTIAL KNOWLEDGE APPROACH REPRESENTS KNOWLEDGE IN THE

FORM OF FORMAL LOGIC. THUS, IT CAN BE USED TO DERIVE MORE FACTS.
ALSO, IT GUARANTEES CORRECTNESS.

• EXAMPLE:
• STATEMENT 1: JOHN IS A CRICKETER.
• STATEMENT 2: ALL CRICKETERS ARE ATHLETES.
• THEN IT CAN BE REPRESENTED AS;
• CRICKETER(JOHN)
∀X = CRICKETER (X) ———-> ATHELETE (X)S
4. PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE:

• PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE APPROACH USES SMALL PROGRAMS AND CODES

WHICH DESCRIBES HOW TO DO SPECIFIC THINGS, AND HOW TO PROCEED.

• IN THIS APPROACH, ONE IMPORTANT RULE IS USED WHICH IS IF-THEN RULE.

• IN THIS KNOWLEDGE, WE CAN USE VARIOUS CODING LANGUAGES SUCH
AS LISP LANGUAGE AND PROLOG LANGUAGE.

• WE CAN EASILY REPRESENT HEURISTIC OR DOMAIN-SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE

USING THIS APPROACH.
ISSUES IN KNOWLEDGE
REPRESENTATION

• THE FUNDAMENTAL GOAL OF KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION IS TO

FACILITATE INFERENCE (CONCLUSIONS) FROM KNOWLEDGE.

• THE ISSUES THAT ARISE WHILE USING KR TECHNIQUES ARE MANY. SOME OF
THESE ARE EXPLAINED BELOW.
IMPORTANT ATTRIBUTED:
• THERE ARE TWO ATTRIBUTED “INSTANCE” AND “ISA”, THAT ARE GENERAL
SIGNIFICANCE. THESE ATTRIBUTES ARE IMPORTANT BECAUSE THEY SUPPORT
PROPERTY INHERITANCE.
 RELATIONSHIP AMONG ATTRIBUTES:
• THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ATTRIBUTES OF AN OBJECT, INDEPENDENT OF SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE THEY
ENCODE, MAY HOLD PROPERTIES LIKE:
1.INVERSE — THIS IS ABOUT CONSISTENCY CHECK, WHILE A VALUE IS ADDED TO ONE ATTRIBUTE. THE ENTITIES ARE
RELATED TO EACH OTHER IN MANY DIFFERENT WAYS.
2.EXISTENCE IN AN ISA HIERARCHY — THIS IS ABOUT GENERALIZATION-SPECIFICATION, LIKE, CLASSES OF OBJECTS
AND SPECIALIZED SUBSETS OF THOSE CLASSES, THERE ARE ATTRIBUTES AND SPECIALIZATION OF ATTRIBUTES.
FOR EXAMPLE, THE ATTRIBUTE HEIGHT IS A SPECIALIZATION OF GENERAL ATTRIBUTE PHYSICAL-SIZE WHICH IS, IN
TURN, A SPECIALIZATION OF PHYSICAL-ATTRIBUTE. THESE GENERALIZATION-SPECIALIZATION RELATIONSHIPS ARE
IMPORTANT FOR ATTRIBUTES BECAUSE THEY SUPPORT INHERITANCE.
3.TECHNIQUE FOR REASONING ABOUT VALUES — THIS IS ABOUT REASONING VALUES OF ATTRIBUTES NOT GIVEN
EXPLICITLY. SEVERAL KINDS OF INFORMATION ARE USED IN REASONING, LIKE, HEIGHT: MUST BE IN A UNIT OF
LENGTH, AGE: OF A PERSON CANNOT BE GREATER THAN THE AGE OF PERSON’S PARENTS. THE VALUES ARE OFTEN
SPECIFIED WHEN A KNOWLEDGE BASE IS CREATED.
4.SINGLE VALUED ATTRIBUTES — THIS IS ABOUT A SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTE THAT IS GUARANTEED TO TAKE A UNIQUE
VALUE. FOR EXAMPLE, A BASEBALL PLAYER CAN AT TIME HAVE ONLY A SINGLE HEIGHT AND BE A MEMBER OF ONLY
ONE TEAM. KR SYSTEMS TAKE DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO PROVIDE SUPPORT FOR SINGLE VALUED ATTRIBUTES.
CHOOSING GRANULARITY:
• AT WHAT LEVEL OF DETAIL SHOULD THE KNOWLEDGE BE REPRESENTED?
• REGARDLESS OF THE KR FORMALISM, IT IS NECESSARY TO KNOW:
• AT WHAT LEVEL SHOULD THE KNOWLEDGE BE REPRESENTED AND WHAT ARE
THE PRIMITIVES?

• SHOULD THERE BE A SMALL NUMBER OR SHOULD THERE BE A LARGE

NUMBER OF LOW-LEVEL PRIMITIVES OR HIGH-LEVEL FACTS.

• HIGH-LEVEL FACTS MAY NOT BE ADEQUATE FOR INFERENCE WHILE LOW-

LEVEL PRIMITIVES MAY REQUIRE A LOT OF STORAGE.
Example of Granularity:
•Suppose we are interested in following facts:
John spotted Sue.
This could be represented as
Spotted (agent(John),object (Sue))
Such a representation would make it easy to answer questions
such are:
•Who spotted Sue?
Suppose we want to know:
•Did John see Sue?
Given only one fact, we cannot discover that answer.
We can add other facts, such as
Spotted(x, y) -> saw(x, y)
We can now infer the answer to the question.
 SET OF OBJECTS:
How should sets of objects be represented?
There are certain properties of objects that are true as member of a set but not as
individual;
Example: Consider the assertion made in the sentences:
“there are more sheep than people in Australia”, and
“English speakers can be found all over the world.”
To describe these facts, the only way is to attach assertion to the sets representing people,
sheep, and English.
The reason to represent sets of objects is: if a property is true for all or most elements of a
set, then it is more efficient to associate it once with the set rather than to associate it
explicitly with every elements of the set.
This is done,
•in logical representation through the use of universal quantifier, and
•in hierarchical structure where node represent sets and inheritance propagate set level
assertion down to individual.
FINDING RIGHT STRUCTURE:
• GIVEN A LARGE AMOUNT OF KNOWLEDGE STORED IN A DATABASE, HOW CAN RELEVANT PARTS
ARE ACCESSED WHEN THEY ARE NEEDED?

• THIS IS ABOUT ACCESS TO RIGHT STRUCTURE FOR DESCRIBING A PARTICULAR SITUATION.

• THIS REQUIRES, SELECTING AN INITIAL STRUCTURE AND THEN REVISING THE CHOICE.

• WHILE DOING SO, IT IS NECESSARY TO SOLVE FOLLOWING PROBLEMS:

• HOW TO PERFORM AN INITIAL SELECTION OF THE MOST APPROPRIATE STRUCTURE.

• HOW TO FILL IN APPROPRIATE DETAILS FROM THE CURRENT SITUATIONS.

• HOW TO FIND A BETTER STRUCTURE IF THE ONE CHOSEN INITIALLY TURNS OUT NOT TO BE
APPROPRIATE.

• WHAT TO DO IF NONE OF THE AVAILABLE STRUCTURES IS APPROPRIATE.

• WHEN TO CREATE AND REMEMBER A NEW STRUCTURE.