EEE 2226 Electrical Machines 1

By: Siyoi. V.
 Types and Construction of Transformers.
 Theory of Operation of Real 1φ Transformers.
 The Ideal Transformer.
 The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer.
 The Per-unit System of Measurements.
 Transformer Voltage Regulation and Efficiency.
 The Autotransformer.

2
 A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power at one voltage level
to ac electric power at another voltage level through the action of a
magnetic field.

 It consists of two or more coils of wire wrapped around a COMMON

ferromagnetic core.

 These coils are (usually) NOT directly connected. The only connection
between the coils is the common magnetic flux present within the core.

3
 One of the transformer windings is connected to a source of ac electric power,
and the second (and perhaps third) transformer winding supplies electric power
to loads.

 The transformer winding connected to the power source is called the

primary winding or input winding, and the winding connected to the loads is
called the secondary winding or output winding.

 If there is a THIRD winding on the transformer, it is called the tertiary

winding.
4
 The first power distribution system in the United States was a 120 V dc system
invented by Thomas A. Edison to supply power for incandescent light bulbs.

 Edison’s first central power station went into operation in New York City in
September 1882.

 Unfortunately, his power system generated and transmitted power at such

low voltages that very large currents were necessary to supply significant
amounts of power.

 These high currents caused huge voltage drops and power losses in the
transmission lines, severely restricting the service area of a generating
station.
5
 The invention of the transformer and the concurrent development of ac power
sources eliminated forever these restrictions on the range and power level of
power systems.

 A transformer ideally changes one ac voltage level to another voltage level

without affecting the actual power supplied.

 If a transformer steps up the voltage level of a circuit, it must decrease the

current to keep the power into the device equal to the power out of it.

the square of the current 𝑰𝟐𝑹in the lines, raising the transmission voltage
 Since the transmission losses in the lines of a power system are proportional to

and reducing the resulting transmission currents by a factor of 10 with

transformers reduces power transmission losses by a factor of l00.

6
 The principal purpose of a transformer is to convert ac power at one voltage
level to ac power of the same frequency at another voltage level.

 Other purposes (e.g., voltage sampling, current sampling, and impedance

transformation).

 Power transformers are constructed on one of TWO types of cores.

7
 One type of construction consists of a simple rectangular laminated piece of
steel with the transformer windings wrapped around two sides of the
rectangle.

 This type of construction is known as core form.

8
 The other type consists of a three-legged laminated core with the windings
wrapped around the center leg. This type of construction is known as shell
form illustrated in Fig.

9
 In either case, the core is constructed of thin laminations ELECTRICALLY
ISOLATED FROM EACH OTHER in order to minimize eddy currents.

 A transformer connected to the output of a generator and used to step its

voltage up to transmission levels (110+ kV) is called a unit transformer.

 The transformer at the other end of the transmission line, which steps the
voltage down from transmission levels to distribution levels (from 2.3 to
34.5 kV), is called a substation transformer.

 Finally, the transformer that takes the distribution voltage and steps it down
to the final voltage at which the power is actually used (110, 208, 220 V, etc.)
is called a distribution transformer.
10
 In addition to the various power transformers, two special-purpose
transformers are used with electric machinery and power systems.

 The first of these special transformers is a device specially designed to sample

a high voltage and produce a low secondary voltage directly proportional
to it. Such a transformer is called a potential transformer.

 The second type of special transformer is a device designed to provide a

secondary current much smaller than but directly proportional to its
primary current. This device is called a current transformer.

11
1) Induced Voltage in a Transformer.

2) The Voltage Ratio across a Transformer.

3) The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer.

4) The Current Ratio on a Transformer and the Dot Convention.

12
 Fig shows a transformer consisting of two coils of wire wrapped around a
transformer core. The primary of the transformer is connected to an ac power
source, and the secondary winding is open-circuited.

13
 The basis of transformer operation can be derived from Faraday’s law:

 where 𝜆is the flux linkage in the coil across which the voltage is being
induced.

 The flux linkage 𝜆is the sum of the flux passing through each turn in the
coil added over all the turns of the coil:

14
 If the total flux linkage in all the turns of the coils is 𝑵𝝓and if there are N
turns, then the average flux per turn is given by:

 and Faraday’s law can be written as:

15
 If the voltage of the source is 𝒗𝒑(𝒕), then that voltage is placed directly across
the coils of the primary winding of the transformer.

 How will the transformer react to this applied voltage?

 Faraday’s law (explains) is solved for the average flux present in the
primary winding of the transformer, the result is:

16
 This flux is present in the primary coil of the transformer.

 What effect does it have on the secondary coil of the transformer?

 The effect depends on how much of the flux reaches the secondary coil.

 The portion of the flux that goes through one of the transformer coils but
NOT the other one is called leakage flux. (See fig).

 The flux in the coil of the transformer can thus be divided into two
components:

 a mutual flux, which remains in the core and links both windings, and a
small leakage flux, which passes through the primary winding but returns
through the air, bypassing the secondary winding: 17
Mutual and leakage fluxes in a transformer core.

18
 Where:

 There is a similar division of flux in the secondary winding between mutual

flux and leakage flux:

19
 With the division of the average primary flux into mutual and leakage
components, Faraday’s law for the primary circuit can be re-expressed as:

 Equation can be re-written as:

20
 The voltage on the secondary coil of the transformer can also be expressed in
terms of Faraday's law as:

 The primary voltage due to the mutual flux is given by:

21
 and the secondary voltage due to the mutual flux is given by:

 from these two relationships:

22
 This equation means that the ratio of the primary voltage CAUSED BY THE
MUTUAL FLUX to the secondary voltage CAUSED BY THE MUTUAL
FLUX is equal to the turns ratio of the transformer.

23
 When an ac power source is connected to a transformer as shown in previous
Fig, a current flows in its primary circuit, even when the secondary circuit is
open circuited.

 This current is the current required to produce flux in a real

ferromagnetic core.

1. The magnetization current 𝑖𝑀, which is the current required to PRODUCE

 It consists of two components:

2. The core-loss current 𝑖ℎ+𝑒which is the current required TO MAKE UP

the flux in the transformer core.

FOR hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core.

24
 Fig shows the magnetization curve of a typical transformer core. If the flux in
the transformer core is known, then the magnitude of the magnetization
current can be found directly from the same Fig.

25
 Ignoring for the moment the effects of leakage flux, we see that the average
flux in the core is given by:

 If the primary voltage is given by the expression 𝑣𝑝𝑡 = 𝑉𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡V, then

the resulting flux must be:

 If the values of current required to produce a given flux are COMPARED

to the flux in the core at different times, it is possible to construct a sketch of
the magnetization current in the winding on the core. 26
27
 Now suppose that a load is connected to the secondary of the transformer. The
resulting circuit is shown in Fig.

 Notice the dots on the windings of the transformer. As in the ideal transformer,
the dots help determine the polarity of the voltages and currents in the core
without having to physically examine its windings.
28
 The physical significance of the dot convention is that a current flowing

force 𝕱while a current flowing into the UNDOTTED end of a winding

INTO the DOTTED end of a winding produces a positive magnetomotive

produces a negative magnetomotive force.

 Therefore, two currents flowing into the dotted ends of their respective
windings produce magnetomotive forces that ADD.

 If one current flows into a dotted end of a winding and one flows out of a
dotted end, then the magnetomotive forces will SUBTRACT from each other.

29
 In the situation shown in Fig, the primary current produces a positive
magnetomotive force:

 and the secondary current produces a negative magnetomotive force:

 Therefore, the net magnetomotive force on the core must be:

 This net magnetomotive force must produce the net flux in the core, so the net
magnetomotive force must be equal to:

30
 Where 𝔎is the reluctance of the transformer core.

 The relationship between the primary and secondary currents is approximately:

 as long as the core is unsaturated. Therefore:

 It is the fact that the magnetomotive force in the core is nearly ZERO which
gives the dot convention the meaning. 31
 In order for the magnetornotive force to be nearly zero,
current must flow into one dotted end and out of the
other dotted end.

32
1) Power in an Ideal Transformer.

2) Impedance Transformation through a Transformer.

3) Analysis of Circuits Containing Ideal Transformers.

33
 An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding and an output
winding.

 The relationships between the input voltage and the output voltage, and
between the input current and the output current, are given by two simple
equations.

 Fig shows an ideal transformer.

34
 Schematic Symbols of a Transformer.

 Sometimes the iron core is shown in the symbol, and sometimes not.

35
 Relationship between voltage 𝑣𝑝𝑡 applied to the primary side of the Tx and
the voltage 𝑣𝑠𝑡 produced on the secondary side is:

 where 𝒂is defined to be the turns ratio of the transformer: The turns ratio of
the ideal transformer affects the magnitudes of the voltages and currents, but
NOT their angles.

 Relationship between the 𝑖𝑝𝑡 and the current 𝑖𝑠𝑡 is:

36
 TIle power supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit is given by the
equation:

 𝜃𝑝= angle between the primary voltage and the primary current.

 The power supplied by the transformer secondary circuit to its loads is

given by the equation:

37
 𝜃𝑠= angle between the secondary voltage and the secondary current.

 Since voltage and current angles are unaffected by an ideal transformer:

𝜃𝑝− 𝜃𝑠= 𝜃

 The primary and secondary windings of an ideal transformer have the same
power factor.

 The power out of a transformer is:

38
 Applying the turns-ratio equations gives:

The same relationship applies to reactive power 𝑄and apparent power 𝑆:

 Thus, the output power of an ideal transformer is equal to its input power.

39
 The impedance of a device or an element is defined as the ratio of the phasor
voltage across it to the phasor current flowing through it:

 Since it changes voltage and current levels, it changes the ratio between
voltage and current and hence the apparent impedance of an element.

40
(a) Definition of impedance. (b) Impedance scaling through a transformer.

41
 If the secondary current is called 𝐼𝑠and the secondary voltage 𝑉𝑠, then the
impedance of the load is given by:

 The apparent impedance of the primary circuit of the transformer is:

 Since the primary voltage can be expressed as:

 and the primary current can be expressed as:

42
 The apparent impedance of the primary is:

 With a transformer, it is possible to match the magnitude of a load

impedance to a source impedance simply by picking the proper turns
ratio.

43
 If a circuit contains an ideal transformer, then the easiest way to analyze the
circuit for its voltages and currents is to replace the portion of the circuit on
one side of the transformer by an equivalent circuit with the same
terminal characteristics.

 In the portion of the circuit that was not replaced, the solutions obtained will be
the correct values of voltage and current for the original circuit.

 The process of replacing one side of a transformer by its equivalent at the

other side’s voltage level is known as referring the first side of the
transformer to the second side.

44
 A 1Φ power system consists of a 480 V 60 Hz generator supplying a load
𝑍𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑= 4 + 𝑗3 Ω through a transmission line of impedance 𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒= 0.18 +
𝑗0.24 Ω.

 (a) If the power system is as shown in Fig, what will the voltage at the load
be? What will the transmission line losses be?

45
 (b) Suppose a 1: 10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the
transmission line and a 10: 1 step-down transformer is placed at the load end
of the line (as shown in Fig b).
 What will the load voltage be now? What will the transmission line losses be
now?

46
 The power system without transformers: Here 𝐼𝐺= 𝐼𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒= 𝐼𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑. The line
current in this system is given by:

47
 Therefore the load voltage is:

 and the line losses are:

48
The power system with the transformers. To analyze this system, it is necessary
to convert it to a common voltage level. This is done in two steps:
 1. Eliminate Tx T2 by referring the load over to the transmission line’s voltage
level.
 2. Eliminate Tx Tl by referring the transmission line’s elements and the
equivalent load at the transmission line’s voltage over to the source side.

 The value of the load’s impedance when reflected to the transmission system’s
voltage is:

49
 The total impedance at the transmission line level is now:

 This equivalent circuit is shown in Fig:

50
 The total impedance at the transmission line level (𝑍𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒+ 𝑍′𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
reflected across T1 to the source’s voltage level: ) is now

51
 The resulting equivalent circuit is shown in Fig:

52
 The generator’s current is:

 Knowing the current 𝑰𝑮. we can now work back and find 𝑰𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆and 𝑰𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅.
Working back through T1, we get:

53
 Working back through T2 gives:

 The load voltage is given by:

54
 and the line losses are given by:

 Notice that raising the transmission voltage of the power system reduced
transmission losses by a factor of nearly 90!

 Also, the voltage at the load dropped much less in the system with
transformers COMPARED to the system without transformers.

 This simple example dramatically illustrates the advantages of using higher-

voltage transmission lines as well as the extreme importance of transformers in
modern power systems.

55
1) The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer

2) Approximate Equivalent Circuits of a Transformer

3) Determining the Values of Components in the Transformer Model

56
 It is possible to construct an equivalent circuit that takes into account all the
major imperfections in real transformers. Each major imperfection is
considered in turn, and its effect is included in the transformer model.

 The LOSSES that occur in real transformers have to be accounted for in any
accurate model of transformer behavior. The major items to be considered in
the construction of such a model are:
 1. Copper (𝑰𝟐𝑹) losses: are the resistive heating losses in the primary and
secondary windings of the transformer. They are proportional to the square of
the current in the windings.

 2. Eddy current losses: are resistive heating losses in the core of the
transformer. They are proportional to the square of the voltage applied to the
transformer.
57
 3. Hysteresis losses: are associated with the re-arrangement of the magnetic
domains in the core during each half-cycle.

 They are a complex, nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the

transformer.

 4. Leakage f1ux: are fluxes 𝜙𝐿𝑃and 𝜙𝐿𝑆which escape the core and pass
through only one of the transformer windings are leakage fluxes.

 These escaped fluxes produce a self-inductance in the primary and secondary

coils, and the effects of this inductance must be accounted for.
58
 The easiest effect to model is the copper losses; resistive losses in the primary
and secondary windings of the transformer core.

 They are modeled by placing a resistor 𝑹𝒑in the primary circuit of the
transformer and a resistor 𝑹𝒔in the secondary circuit.

 The leakage flux in the primary windings 𝜙𝐿𝑃produces a voltage 𝑒𝐿𝑃given

by:

 and the leakage flux in the secondary windings 𝜙𝐿𝑆produces a voltage 𝑒𝐿𝑆
given by:

59
 The flux 𝜙𝐿𝑃is directly proportional to the primary circuit current 𝑖𝑃and
the flux 𝜙𝐿𝑆is directly proportional to the secondary current 𝑖𝑆:

Where:

 Voltage 𝑒𝐿𝑃(𝑡) given by:

 Voltage 𝑒𝐿𝑆(𝑡) given by:

60
 The constants in these equations can be lumped together:

 Where

is the leakage inductance of the primary coil.

is the leakage inductance of the secondary coil.

 Therefore, the leakage flux will be modeled by primary and secondary

inductors.

61
 How can the core excitation effects be modeled?

 The magnetization current 𝑖𝑚is a current proportional to the voltage applied

to the core and lagging the applied voltage by 90𝑜.

 So it can be modeled by a reactance 𝑿𝑴connected across the primary

voltage source.

 The core-loss current 𝑖ℎ+𝑒is a current proportional to the voltage applied

to the core that is in phase with the applied voltage.

 So it can be modeled by a resistance 𝑅𝐶connected across the primary

voltage source.

62
 The resulting equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.

63
 primary resistance 𝑹𝑷and reactance 𝑿𝑷.
 Notice that the elements forming the excitation branch are placed inside the

 This is because the voltage actually applied to the core is really the input
voltage less the internal voltage drops of the winding.

 To analyze practical circuits containing transformers, it is normally necessary

to convert the entire circuit to an equivalent circuit at a single voltage
level.

 Therefore, the equivalent circuit must be referred either to its primary side
or to its secondary side in problem solutions.
64
 The transformer model referred to its primary voltage level:

65
 The transformer model referred to its secondary voltage level.

66
 The excitation branch has a very small current COMPARED to the load
current of the transformers.

 In fact, the excitation current is only about 2-3% of the full load current for
typical power transformers.

 Because this is true, a simplified equivalent circuit can be produced that works
almost as well as the original model.

 The excitation branch is simply moved to the front of the transformer, and
the primary and secondary impedances are left in series with each other.

 These impedances are just added, creating the approximate equivalent circuits
in Fig. 67
 Approximate transformer model referred to the primary side.

68
 Approximate transformer model referred to the secondary side.

69
 Approximate transformer model with no excitation branch, referred to the
primary side.

70
 Approximate transformer model with no excitation branch, referred to the
secondary side.

71
 It is possible to experimentally determine the values of the inductances and
resistances in the transformer model.

 An adequate approximation of these values can be obtained with only two

tests, the open-circuit test and the short-circuit test.

72
 One transformer winding is open-circuited, and the other winding is connected
to full rated line voltage.

73
 Under the conditions described, all the input current must be flowing
through the excitation branch of the transformer.

 The series elements, 𝑅𝑃and 𝑋𝑃are too small in comparison to 𝑅𝐶and 𝑋𝑀to
cause a significant voltage drop, so essentially all the input voltage is
dropped across the excitation branch.

 From this information, it is possible to determine the power factor of the

input current and therefore both the magnitude and the angle of the
excitation impedance.

 The easiest way to calculate the values of 𝑅𝐶and 𝑋𝑀is to look first at the
admittance of the excitation branch.
74
 The conductance of the core-loss resistor is given by:

 and the susceptance of the magnetizing inductor is given by:

 Since these two elements are in parallel, their admittances add, and the total
excitation admittance is:

75
 The magnitude of the excitation admittance (referred to the side of the
transformer used for the measurement) can be found from the open-circuit test
voltage and current:

 The angle of the admittance can be found from a knowledge of the circuit
power factor. The open-circuit power factor (PF) is given by:

76
 The power factor is always lagging for a real transformer, so the angle of the
current always lags the angle of the voltage by e degrees. Therefore, the
admittance:

 By COMPARING Equations:

 it is possible to determine the values of 𝑅𝐶and 𝑋𝑀referred to the low-voltage

side directly from the open-circuit test data.

77
 The low-voltage terminals of the transformer are short-circuited, and the high-
voltage terminals are connected to a variable voltage source, the input voltage
is adjusted until the current in the short-circuited windings is equal to its
rated value.

78
 The input voltage, current, and power are again measured.

 The magnitude of the series impedances referred to the primary side of the
transformer is:

 The power factor of the current is given by:

 The current angle is negative, and the overall impedance angle 𝜽is positive:

79
 Therefore:

 The series impedance is equal to:

80
 Solving circuits containing transformers can be quite a tedious operation
because of the need to refer all the different voltage levels on different sides
of the transformers in the system to a common level.

 Only after this step has been taken can the system be solved for its voltages
and currents.

 There is another approach to solving circuits containing transformers which

eliminates the need for explicit voltage-level conversions at every
transformer in the system. Instead, the required conversions are handled
automatically by the method itself, without ever requiring the user to worry
about impedance transformations.

 This method of calculation is known as the per-unit (pu) system of

measurements.
81
 In the per-unit system, the voltages, currents, powers, impedances, and other
electrical quantities are measured as a decimal fraction of some base level.

 Any quantity can be expressed on a per-unit basis by the equation:

 It is customary to select TWO base quantities to define a given per-unit

system. The ones usually selected are voltage and power (or apparent power).

 Once these base quantities have been selected, all the other base values are
related to them by the usual electrical laws.

82
83
 A simple power system is shown in Fig. This system contains a 480 V
generator connected to an ideal 1:10 step-up transformer, a transmission line,

transmission line is 20 + 𝑗60 Ω. and the impedance of the load is 10∠30° Ω.

an ideal 20:1 step-down transformer, and a load. The impedance of the

The base values for this system are chosen to be 480 V and 10 kVA at the
generator.
 (a) Find the base voltage, current, impedance, and apparent power at every
point in the power system.
 (b) Convert this system to its per-unit equivalent circuit.
 (c) Find the power supplied to the load in this system.
 (d) Find the power lost in the transmission line.

84
85
 (a) In the generator region:

 The turns ratio of transformer T1 is a=1/10=0.1, so the base voltage in the

transmission line region is:

86
The turns ratio of transformer T2 is a=20/1=20, so the base voltage in the load region is:

87
 (b) To convert a power system to a per-unit system, each component must be
divided by its base value in its region of the system. The generator’s per-unit
voltage is its actual value divided by its base value:

 The transmission line’s per-unit impedance is its actual value divided by its
base value:

 The load’s per-unit impedance is also given by actual value divided by base
value:

88
 The per-unit equivalent circuit of the power system is shown in Figure:

89
 (c) The current flowing in this per-unit power system is:

 Therefore, the per-unit power of the load is:

90
 and the actual power supplied to the load is:

(d) The per-unit power lost in the transmission line is:

 and the actual power lost in the transmission line is:

91
 If more than one machine and one transformer are included in a single power
system, the system base voltage and power may be chosen arbitrarily, but
the entire system must have the same base. One common procedure is to
choose the system base quantities to be EQUAL to the base of the largest
component in the system.

 Per-unit values given to another base can be converted to the new base by
converting directly by the equations:

92
1) The Transformer Phasor Diagram.

2) Transformer Efficiency.

93
 Because a real transformer has series impedances within it, the output
voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if the input voltage
remains CONSTANT.

 To conveniently compare transformers in this respect, it is customary to define

a quantity called voltage regulation (VR).

94
 Since at no load:

 the voltage regulation can also be expressed as:

 If the transformer equivalent circuit is in the per-unit system, then voltage

regulation can be expressed as:

95
 Consider the simplified transformer equivalent circuit in Fig. The effects of the
excitation branch on transformer voltage regulation can be ignored, so only the
series impedances need be considered.

96
 The VR of a transformer depends both on the magnitude of these series
impedances and on the phase angle of the current flowing through the
transformer.

 The easiest way to determine the effect of the impedances and the current
phase angles on the transformer VR is to examine a phasor diagram, a
sketch of the phasor voltages and currents in the transformer.

 The phasor voltage 𝑽𝒔is assumed to be at an angle of 𝟎° and all other

voltages and currents are compared to that reference.

 By applying KVL to the equivalent circuit in Fig, the primary voltage can be
found as:

97
 Fig shows a phasor diagram of a transformer operating at a lagging power factor.

𝑎> 𝑉
𝑉𝑃
 It is easy to see that
loads must be greater than 𝑆for lagging loads, so the VR of a transformer with lagging
zero.

 A phasor diagram at unity power factor is shown in Fig.

 Here again, the voltage at the secondary is lower than the voltage at the primary, so 𝑉𝑅> 0.
98
 However, this time the VR is a smaller number than it was with a lagging
current.

 If the secondary current is leading, the secondary voltage can actually be

higher than the referred primary voltage.

 If this happens, the transformer actually has a negative VR:

99
 Transformers are also compared and judged on their efficiencies. The
efficiency of a device is defined by the equation:

100
 Since the output power is given by:

 To calculate the efficiency of a transformer at a given load, just add the losses
from each resistor and apply Equation:

101
 A 15 kVA, 2300/230 V transformer is to be tested to determine its excitation
branch components, its series impedances, and its voltage regulation. The
following test data have been taken from the transformer:

102
 (a) Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the high-voltage
side.

 (b) Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the low-voltage
side.

power factor, and at 0.8 leading power factor using the exact equation for 𝑉𝑃.
 (c) Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging power factor, 1.0

 (d) Plot the voltage regulation as load is increased from no load to full load at
power factors of 0.8 lagging, 1.0, and 0.8 leading.

 (e) What is the efficiency of the transformer at full load with a power factor of
0.8 lagging?

103
 (a) The turns ratio of this transformer is a=2300/230=10. The excitation branch
values of the transformer equivalent circuit referred to the secondary (LV) side
can be calculated from the open-circuit test data, and the series elements
referred to the primary (HV) side can be calculated from the short-circuit test
data. From the open-circuit test data, the open-circuit impedance angle is:

 The excitation admittance is thus:

104
 The elements of the excitation branch referred to the secondary are:

 From the short-circuit test data, the short-circuit impedance angle is:

105
 The equivalent series impedance is thus:

 The series elements referred to the primary side are:

 The resulting simplified equivalent circuit referred to the primary side can be
found by converting the excitation branch values to the primary side.

106
 This equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.

107
108
necessary to divide the impedance by 𝑎2 , Since 𝑎= 𝑁𝑃 𝑁 = 10, the resulting
(b) To find the equivalent circuit referred to the low-voltage side, it is simply
𝑆
values are:

The resulting equivalent circuit is shown in Fig.

109
110
 (c) The full-load current on the secondary side of this transformer is:

 To calculate 𝑉𝑃 𝑎:

111
 The resulting voltage regulation is:

112
 The resulting voltage regulation is:

 The resulting voltage regulation is:

113
114
 Plot of voltage regulation versus load for the transformer:

115
 (e) To find the efficiency of the transformer, first calculate its losses. The
copper losses are:

 The core losses are given by:

 The output power of the transformer at this power factor is:

 Therefore, the efficiency of the transformer at this condition is:

116
1) Voltage and Current Relationships in an Autotransformer.

2) The Apparent Power Rating Advantage of Autotransformers.

117
 On some occasions it is desirable to change voltage levels by only a small
amount.

 For example, it may be necessary to increase a voltage from 110 to 120 V or

from 13.2 to 13.8 kV.

 These small rises may be made NECESSARY by voltage drops that occur in
power systems a long way from the generators.

 In such circumstances, it is wasteful and excessively expensive to wind a

transformer with two full windings, each rated at about the same voltage.

 A special-purpose transformer, called an autotransformer; is used instead.

118
 However, the voltage at the output of the whole transformer is the sum of the
voltage all the first winding and the voltage on the second winding.

 The first winding here is called the common winding, because its voltage
appears on both sides of the transformer.

 The smaller winding is called the series winding, because it is connected in

series with the common winding.

 The voltage on the common coil is called the common, voltage 𝑽𝑪and the
current in that coil is called the common current 𝑰𝑪.

 The voltage on the series coil is called the series voltage 𝑽𝑺𝑬, and the current
in that coil is called the series current 𝑰𝑺𝑬.
119
 𝑽𝑳and 𝑰𝑳respectively, while the corresponding quantities on the high-voltage
 The voltage and current on the low-voltage side of the transformer are called

side of the transformer are called 𝑽𝑯and 𝑰𝑯.

 The primary side of the autotransformer (the side with power into it) can be
either the high-voltage side or the low-voltage side, depending on whether the
autotransformer is acting as a step-down or a step-up transformer.

 A transformer with its windings connected in the conventional manner. 120

 A transformer with its windings connected as an (step-up) autotransformer.

121
 The voltages and currents in the coils are related by the equations:

 The voltages in the coils are related to the voltages at the terminals by the
equations:

 and the currents in the coils are related to the currents at the terminals by the
equations:

122
 A step-down autotransformer connection.

123
 To determine the relationship between 𝑽𝑯and 𝑽𝑳: The voltage on the high
side of the autotransformer is given by:

124
 The current relationship between the two sides of the transformer can be found
by noting that:

 From Equation:

125
 Finally, noting that 𝐼𝐻= 𝐼𝑆𝐸, we find:

126
 It is interesting to note that not all the power traveling from the primary to the
secondary in the autotransformer goes through the windings.

 As a result, if a conventional transformer is reconnected as an autotransformer,

it can handle much more power than it was originally rated for.

 To understand this idea, refer again to Fig. Notice that the input apparent
power to the autotransformer is given by:

127
 and the output apparent power is given by:

 It is easy to show, by using the voltage and current equations [Equations (2-
76) and (2- 79)], that the input apparent power is again equal to the output
apparent power:

 where So is defined to be the input and output apparent powers of the

transformer.

 However, the apparent power in the transformer windings is:

128
 The relationship between the power going into the primary (and out the
secondary) of the transformer and the power in the transformer’s actual
windings can be found as follows:

 Using Equation:

129
 Therefore, the ratio of the apparent power in the primary and secondary of the
autotransformer to the apparent power actually traveling through its windings
is:

 Eqn. describes the apparent power rating advantage of an autotransformer over

a conventional transformer. NB: the smaller the series winding, the greater the
advantage.

130
 Example

A 100 VA, 120/12 V transformer is to be connected so as to form a step-up

autotransformer. A primary voltage of 120 V is applied to the transformer.

(a) What is the secondary voltage of the transformer?

(b) What is its maximum voltampere rating in this mode of operation?

(c) Calculate the rating advantage of this autotransformer connection over the
transformer’s rating in conventional 120/12 V operation.

131
 the turns on the common winding 𝑁𝐶to the turns on the series winding
 To accomplish a step-up transformation with a 120 V primary, the ratio of

𝑁𝑆𝐸in this transformer must be 120:12 (or 10:1).

132
 voltage is 𝑉𝐻, and from Equation:
 (a) This transformer is being used as a step-up transformer. The secondary

133
(b) The maximum voltampere rating in either winding of this transformer is 100
VA.
 How much input or output apparent power can this provide? To find out,

 The voltage 𝑉𝑆𝐸on the winding is 12 V, and the voltampere rating of the
examine the series winding.

winding is 100 VA. Therefore, the maximum series winding current is:

 Since 𝐼𝑆𝐸is equal to the secondary current 𝐼𝑆(or 𝐼𝐻) and since the secondary
voltage 𝑉𝑆= 𝑉𝐻= 132 V, the secondary apparent power is:

134
 (c) The rating advantage can be calculated from part (b) or separately from
Equation:

 By either equation, the apparent power rating is increased by a factor of 11.

135
 The principal disadvantage of autotransformers is that, unlike ordinary
transformers, there is a direct physical connection between the primary and
the secondary circuits, so the electrical isolation of the two sides is lost.

 If a particular application does not require electrical isolation, then the

autotransformer is a convenient and inexpensive way to tie nearly equal
voltages together.

136
END

137