Temperature

measurement
Topics Covered

▪ Temperature measuring devices.

▪ Basic operation of different types of
temperature measuring device.
▪ Criteria for selecting a suitable temperature-
measuring instrument.

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Topics outcomes
1. Differentiate between absolute and relative
temperature scale
2. Explain the basic operation of the most common
sensors; thermocouples, resistance temperature
detectors or RTDs, thermistors and integrated circuit
sensors.
3. Describe the criteria for selecting a suitable
temperature measuring device.

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Introduction
▪ Temperature is a measure of the amount of thermal
energy (heat) possessed by an object.
▪ Temperature is the most common PV measured in
process control.
▪ Temperature control is important for separation and
reaction processes, and temperature must be
maintained within limits to ensure safe and reliable
operation of process equipment.

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Temperature Scale

▪ There are three temperature scales in use

today, Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin.
1. Fahrenheit (F)
~ British Imperial system
~ Water boiling point: 212o
~ Water freezing point: 32o

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Temperature Scale
2. Celcius (C)
~ Water boiling point: 100o
~ Water freezing point: 0o

3. Kelvin (K)
~ S.I unit
~ Water boiling point: 373.15
~ Water freezing point: 273.15
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Relative and absolute temperature
Absolute Relative
- Assign a zero temperature to a - When the scale indicate zero, the
material that has no thermal energy. thermal energy is not zero.
-The temperature scale differ by the - Common use Celcius, oC (Related to
quantity of energy represented by unit Kelvin) and Fahrenheit, oF (related to
of measure. Rankine)
-Common use Rankine (oR) and Kelvin
(K)

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Temperature Conversion Formula
From To Fahrenheit To Celsius To Kelvin Rankine

(F - 32) * 5/9 +
Fahrenheit (oF) F (F - 32) * 5/9 F + 459.67
273.15

Celsius (oC) (C * 9/5) + 32 C C + 273.15 (C + 273.15) × 9⁄5

(K - 273.15) * 9/5 K × 9⁄ 5
Kelvin (K) K - 273.15 K
+ 32

Rankine (oR) R − 459.67 (R − 491.67) × 5⁄9 R × 5⁄ 9 R

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Convert 172.9 0F to degrees Celsius.

C = 5 x (0F – 32)
0
9
0
C = 5 x (172.9 – 32) = 78.3
9
Convert 78.3oC to degrees Rankine
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R = ( C + 273.15) x 5
o

R = (78.3oC + 273.15) x 9 = 632.61

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Thermocouple

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Principles of thermocouple operation
▪ Consist of two dissimilar metal and joined at
both ends ~ produces a voltage related to a
temperature difference
▪ Hot junction ~ measure temperature (attached
to a probe) Et

T1 T2
E1 E2

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Principles of thermocouple operation

▪ Cold junction ~ reference (maintained at known

temperature – at 0oC)
▪ Output voltage depends on temperature difference
between the two junction and thermal properties of the
metals used in the circuit
▪ E1 = voltage generated by T1 (from hot junction)
▪ E2 = voltage generated by T2 (from cold junction)
▪ Et = E 1 – E2

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Principles of thermocouple operation

▪ The emf (electromotive force) is calculated

using the following equation:
emf (volts) = V1-V2= b (T1 – T2)
b = Seebeck coefficient (V/K) , T (K)

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The Peltier and Thomson effects on
thermocouple operation
▪ The Peltier effect is the cause of the emfs generated
at every junction of dissimilar metals in the circuit.
▪ This effect involves the generation or absorption of
heat at the junction as current flows through it and
temperature is dependent on current flow direction.

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The Peltier and Thomson effects on
thermocouple operation
▪ The Thomson effect, where a second emf can also be
generated along the temperature gradient of a single
homogeneous wire can also contribute to measurement
errors.
▪ It is essential that all the wire in a thermocouple
measuring circuit is homogeneous as then the emfs
generated will be dependent solely on the types of
material used.
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Commercial Available Thermocouples
Thermocouple Type
Type Material Temperature Range Limits of Error
J Iron/Constantan 0◦C to 293◦C 2.2◦C
293◦C to 760◦C 0.75%
K Chromel/Alumel -200◦C to -110◦C 2%
-110◦C to 0◦C
2.2◦C
0◦C to 293◦C
293◦C to 1250◦C 0.75%
T Copper/Constantan -200◦C to -67◦C 1.50%
-67◦C to 0◦C 1◦C
0◦C to 133◦C 1◦C
133◦C to 350◦C 0.75%
E Chromel/Constantan -200◦C to -67◦C 1%
-170◦C to 0◦C 1.7◦C
0◦C to 340◦C 1.7◦C
340◦C to 900◦C 0.50%
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Commercial Available Thermocouples

Thermocouple Type
Type Material Temperature Range Limits of Error
N Nicrosil/Nisil 0◦C to 293◦C 2.2◦C
293◦C to 1260◦C 0.75%
R Platinum/Platinum-13% Rhodium 0◦C to 600◦C 1.5◦C
600◦C to 1450◦C 0.25%
S Platinum/Platinum-10% Rhodium 0◦C to 600◦C 1.5◦C
600◦C to 1450◦C 0.25%
B Platinum/Platinum-30% Rhodium 800◦C -1700◦C 0.50%

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Thermocouple voltage output

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Thermocouple - thermowell
▪ Thermocouple are often insulated electrically with
ceramic material (high temperature) and sheathed in
stainless steel
▪ Used thermowell for effectively seal off the process
fluid or gas-temperature sensor is protected from the
process materials to prevent interference with proper
sensing and to eliminate damage to the sensor.
• An additional advantage of such a thermowell is the
ability to remove, replace, and calibrate the sensor
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without disrupting the process operation.
Temperature sensor without thermowell

Temperature sensor with thermowell

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Thermocouple - Advantages and
Disadvantages
• Advantages
– Low cost
– No moving parts, less likely to be broken
– Wide temperature range (from –262 to +2760 °C)
– Reasonably short response time
– High realibility
• Disadvantages
– Sensitivity is low, usually 50 µV/°C (28 µV/°F) or less
– Accuracy, usually no better than 0.5 °C (0.9°F), may not be high enough for
some applications
– Requires a known temperature reference, usually 0°C (32°F) ice water. Modern
thermocouples, on the other hand, rely on an electrically generated reference
– The relationship between the process temperature and the thermocouple
signal (millivolt) is not linear.

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Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTD)

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Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

• RTD is wire and thin film devices that measure temperature from the
change in the metal resistance of the metal wire.
• The metal resistance of many metals changes with temperature; metals
for which resistance increases with temperature are used in RTDs.
• Linear relationship using equation
RT= Ro(1+aT)
RT = the resistance at temperature, T
R0 = the resistance at base temperature of 0 °C
T = the temperature of the sensor (to be determined from RT)
a = the temperature coefficient of the metal

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Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
▪ As temperature of a metal increases, the
metal's resistance to the flow of
electricity increases (measure in ohms).
▪ metals selected should that have high
resistivity, good temperature coefficient
of resistance, good ductile or tensile
strength, and chemical inertness with
packaging and insulation materials
▪ Most common RTD are made from
platinum. For some application nickel is
used.
▪ The most popular RTD is the Pt100. 25
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

R100/ R0 - 1
a=
100
R100 = Resistance at 100oC (steam point)
R0 = Resistance at 0oC (ice point)

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Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

▪ Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire

wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The element is
usually quite fragile, so it is often placed inside a sheathed
probe to protect it.
▪ The RTD element is made from a pure material whose
resistance at various temperatures has been documented. The
material has a predictable change in resistance as the
temperature changes; it is this predictable change that is used
to determine temperature.
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Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
▪ RTD sensitivity, a can be noted from typical value of
metal used,
Platinum = 0.00385 / oC
Nickel =0.005 / oC
▪ The effective range of RTDs principally depend on the
type of wire used
Platinum RTD = -100 to 650 oC
Nickel RTD = -180 to 300 oC
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Example 1
▪ A nickel resistance thermometer has a
resistance of 114 Ω at 0oC and the value of the
temperature coefficient of the nickel,  is
0.005/oC. In operation, the resistance is 125 Ω.
Calculate the temperature
RT= Ro(1+aT)
125 Ω = 114 Ω(1+ 0.005/oC T)
T = 19.29oC

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Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
• They are slowly replacing the use of
thermocouples in many industrial
applications below 600 °C, due to
higher accuracy and repeatability.
• RTDs are commonly used for
applications in which higher accuracy
than provided by thermocouples is
required.

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Advantages & Disadvantages of RTD
▪ Advantages:
▫ Stable output for long period of time
▫ Provide excellent accuracy and repeatability
▫ Ease of recalibration
▪ Disadvantages, compared to the thermocouples, are:
▫ Smaller overall temperature range
▫ Higher initial cost

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Criteria For Selecting A Suitable Temperature-
Measuring Instrument
• Operating range
– The operating range and type of function are the
important considerations when selecting a measuring
instrument.
– Scale: RTD thermometer have linear scale. The derived
electrical signal (analog or digital) is available for
indication and transmission.
– Remote reading instrument: Thermocouple and RTD have
better capability for remote readout. Direct connection of
the sensing element and remote display instrument.

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Criteria For Selecting A Suitable Temperature-
Measuring Instrument
• Sensing elements
– For the fastest measurement response, the sensing element itself
should ideally be directly exposed to the process fluid.
– But it always not possible because of the following reasons:
• contamination of sensing element by the process fluid.
• contamination of the process fluid by the sensing element.
• aggressive attack on the sensing element by the process fluid.
• high pressure in the line or vessel containing the process fluid.
• a process fluid that is dangerous to handle.
– Most element are located within wells or pockets to separate the
sensor and the fluid.

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 Temperature Life
Range Accuracy Range Expectancy Cost

Define the temperature

range
Do you need the temperature to
within ±0.1°C, or ±1°C, or ±10°C
(or °F)?
0-100 ◦C temperature range: -
• RTD Voltage change 38.5mV
• Thermocouple Voltage
change 6.317mV

It is widely accepted that

thermocouples are in a constant
state of degradation and need to
be checked and replaced Thermocouple is
periodically. By contrast, cheaper than RTD
platinum RTDs may last
indefinitely if the environment
does not deteriorate them.
Thermistor
Thermistor
▪ The name thermistors is derived from the term ‘thermally
sensitive resistors’, since the resistance of the thermistor varies
as a function of temperature.
▪ While the thermocouple is the most versatile temperature
transducer and the RTD is the most linear, “most sensitive” are
the words that best describe thermistors.
▪ Thermistors tend to be more accurate than RTD’s or
thermocouples, but they have a much more limited
temperature range. They are also subject to self-heating.

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Thermistor
▪ A thermistor’s high resistance change per degree change in
temperature provides excellent accuracy and resolution.
▪ A standard 2,000-ohm thermistor with a temperature coefficient
of 3.9%/°C at 25°C will have a resistance change of 78 ohms per
°C change in temperature.
▪ A 2000 Ω platinum RTD would have a change of only 7.2 ohms
under the same conditions. So, a standard thermistor is over ten
times more sensitive than a RTD.
▪ This allows the thermistor circuit to detect minute changes in
temperature that could not be observed with an RTD or
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thermocouple circuit.
Thermistor

https://eg4.nic.in/govpoly/DFILES/EBOOKS/IR/MeasurementsandControlBasis130420.pdf 38
Thermistor

▪ Thermistors are made up of metallic oxides, binders and

stabilizers, pressed into wafers and then cut to chip size,
left in disc form, or made into another shape.
▪ Thermistors can be manufactured very small, which means
they will respond quickly to temperature changes.
▪ It also means that their small thermal mass makes them
susceptible to self-heating errors. Thermistors are more
fragile than RTDs or thermocouples, and you must mount
them carefully to avoid crushing or bond separation.
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Thermistor
▪ Available in 2 types, NTC (negative temperature
coefficient) and PTC (positive temperature coefficient), it is
the NTC thermistor that is commonly used to measure
temperature.
▪ NTC thermistors’ resistance decreases as their temperature
increases, while PTC thermistors’ resistance increases as
their temperature increases.
▪ The shape of this resistance vs. temperature curve is
determined by the properties of the materials that make
up the thermistor.
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▪ Thermistors are composed of materials with known
resistance.

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42
Integrated circuit
sensors
Integrated circuit
▪ It is a two terminal integrated circuit temperature transducer that
produces an output current proportional to absolute temperature.
The sensor package is small with a low thermal mass and a fast
response time.
▪ Their main advantages are their low cost along with their linear and
high output signals.
▪ As these sensors are formed from integrated silicon chips, their
range is limited to -55 to +150 °C but easily have calibrated
accuracies to 0.05–0.1°C.

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Integrated circuit

▪ Typical IC sensors applications

1. Circuit boards: monitor and control
temperature
2. Computers: control CPU temperature
3. Telecommunications: cell phones &
PDAs
4. Industrial immersion applications
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Integrated circuit
Strengths:
▪ Analog or Digital outputs available
▪ Low cost
▪ Direct voltage, current or digital output needing no additional
circuitry
▪ Linear output, no curve fitting
▪ Direct reading of temperature (1.000 = 100C and 298µA =
298K or 25°C) on some analog devices
▪ Various communication interfaces
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Integrated circuit

Disadvantages:
▪ Narrow temperature range: -55 to 150°C
▪ Wide variation in accuracy between different
models
▪ Small package sizes can be a barrier to low cost
applications in some immersion designs

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Thanks!

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