Transducers

22ES
 Instrumentation System
• An electronic instrumentation system consists of several components to perform a
measurement and record the data.
• The generalized measurement system consists of three major components.
• An Input device
• A signal conditioning device
• An Output

Input Output

Display
Sensor Signal
conditioner
Measurand Recorder
 Transducers

• Transducer: convert one form of energy into

other
• Device that converters physical quantity into
an electrical quantity
 Parameters to be measured
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Flow
• Pressure
• Velocity
• Weight
• Level
• Packet counting
 Transducers
• Active
– Active transducers are those which do not require
an auxiliary power source to produce their output.
– Self-generated
• Passive
– Require auxiliary power source.
– Externally powered Transducers
 Passive
Passive
• Resistive
– LDR
– Resistive Strain Gauge
– Thermister
– RTD
– Potentiometric
• Inductive
– LVDT
– RVDT
• Capacitive
 Active
• Self generated
– Thermocouple
– Piezoelectric
– Photovoltiac cell
– Moving coil generators
 Temperature Measuring
• Electrical Instrument
• Mechanical \non Electrical
 Temperature…..contd
• Thermometer
• Temperature gauge

Thermometer
• Thermometer is a device used for measuring temperature, especially of the air or
in a person's body
 How liquid expansion can be used to make
thermometer?
• The basic principle of liquid thermometer is liquid expansion.
• Liquid will expand if it is heated, and contract if it is cold.
• The expansion and contraction of liquid are used to make sign.
• The process make sign on the thermometer is namely calibration.
 Temperature
• Murcury filled or any evaporating liquid
• Sensor to connecting tubes filled
• Rise in temperature produces expansion
• Pressurized
• Shows the reading on simple pressure guage
• Reading related to temperature
 Temperature Controling
• Bi-metalic strip
Bimetallic
 Applications

• fire alarms
• Cloth iron
 Types of Temperature Sensors
 Thermocouples
 Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
 Thermistors
 Infrared Sensors
 Semiconductors
 What are thermocouples?
• Thermocouples operate under the principle that a circuit
made by connecting two dissimilar metals produces a
measurable voltage (emf-electromotive force) when a
temperature gradient is imposed between one end and the
other.

• They are inexpensive, small, rugged and accurate.

Let’s take a look at this circuit
Generally, a second order Eqn. is used.
E   (T  To )   (T  To )2
 Material EMF versus Temperature
Chromel With reference to
the characteristics
of pure Platinum
Iron
emf Copper
Platinum-Rhodium

Alumel

Constantan
Temperature
 Thermocouple Effect
• Any time a pair of dissimilar wires is joined to
make a circuit and a thermal gradient is
imposed, an emf voltage will be generated.
– Twisted, soldered or welded junctions are
acceptable. Welding is most common.
– Keep weld bead or solder bead diameter
within 10-15% of wire diameter
– Welding is generally quicker than
soldering but both are equally acceptable
– Voltage or EMF produced depends on:
• Types of materials used
• Temperature difference between the
measuring junction and the reference
junction
 Thermocouples Principle of Operation
• In, 1821 T. J. Seebeck observed the existence of an
electromotive force (EMF) at the junction formed between two
dissimilar metals (Seebeck effect).
– Seebeck effect is actually the combined result of two other
phenomena, Thomson and Peltier effects.
• Thomson observed the existence of an EMF due to
the contact of two dissimilar metals at the junction
temperature.
• Peltier
 Thermocouple Tables
(EMF-Temperature)

• Thermocouple tables correlate temperature to emf

voltage.
– Need to keep in mind that the thermocouple
tables provide a voltage value with respect to a
reference temperature. Usually the reference
temperature is 0°C. If your reference junction is
not at 0°C, a correction must be applied using the
law of intermediate temperatures.
 Reference Temperature Systems and Zone Boxes

• Ice Baths
– Accurate and inexpensive
• Electronically Controlled
References
– Require periodic
calibration and are
generally not as stable as
ice baths, but are more
convenient.
 Zone boxes

– A zone of uniform temperature

that insures all connections made
within the zone are at the same temperature.
What thermocouple materials should be used?

• Depends on requirements:
– Temperature range?
– Required accuracy
– Chemical resistance issues
– Abrasion or vibration resistance
– Installation requirements (size of wire)
– Thermal conduction requirements
 Thermocouple Material Vs EMF
Types T, J, and K are most commonly used thermocouples (see
Table 16.8 of the “Handbook”).
Simple TC Model “EMF-Temperature Sketch”
• Two materials
– Material A (+) 1
– Material B (-)
• Plus and minus refers
to how the emf changes
with temperature. 3 2

Number junctions around circuit

3

B
Measured 2
emf

Emf
A

1
T meter T junction
Temperature
 Law of Intermediate Metals
2) Insertion of an intermediate
metal into a thermocouple circuit
will not affect the emf voltage
output so long as the two
junctions are at the same
temperature and the material is
homogeneous.
– Permits soldered and welded joints.
 A Demonstration of the Law of
Intermediate Metals
6

1 2 4 5

3
6
4
Fe (+) C
C (-) Measured 5
Emf
emf

P (+) 3

Fe 2
Signs of the 1
materials used T ref T 2 and 4 T measured Tcandle
Temperature
 Thermocouple Applications
 Plastic injection molding
machinery
 Food processing equipment
 DEFROSTING
 Semiconductor processing
 Heat treating
 Medical equipment
 Industrial heat treating
 Packaging equipment
 Thermocouples

Advantages Disadvantages
 Simple, Rugged  Least stable, least repeatable
 High temperature operation  Low sensitivity to small
 Low cost temperature changes
 No resistance lead wire problems  Extension wire must be of the
 Point temperature sensing same thermocouple type
 Fastest response to temperature  Wire may pick up radiated
changes electrical noise if not shielded
 Lowest accuracy
Constantan: An alloy of copper and nickel with high electrical resistance and a low temperature coefficient;
used as resistance wire
=5/9(F-32)
 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

 Wire wound and thin film

devices.
 Nearly linear over a wide range of
temperatures.
 Can be made small enough to
have response times of a fraction
of a second.
 Require an electrical current to
produce a voltage drop across the
sensor

 Copper, aluminum, silver

 RTD formula

RT = RO (1 + AT + BT2)

RT = Resistance at temperature T
RO=reference temp
A=constant
B=constant
 Resistive Temperature Detectors

• What is a platinum RTD?

• Basically nothing but a coil of very thin
platinum wire whose resistance is 100 ohms at
temperature
• R = R0(1 + AT + BT2) T > 0 C
– R0 = 100 ohms
– A = 3.9083 x 10-3 C-1
– B = -5.775 x 10-7 C-2
 Resistive Temperature Detectors

• Why use an RTD instead of a thermocouple

or thermistor sensor?
Each type of temperature sensor has a particular
set of conditions for which it is best suited. RTDs
offer several advantages:
A wide temperature range (approximately
-200 to 850°C)
Good accuracy (better than thermocouples)
Good interchangeability
Long-term stability
 RTD standards

• Two standards for platinum RTDs:

– European standard
– American standard.
• The European standard is considered the world-wide standard for
platinum RTDs.
-Requires the RTD to have an electrical resistance of
100.00 Ω at 0°C
-Requires a temperature coefficient of resistance
(TCR) of 0.00385 Ω/Ω/°C between 0 and 100°C.
• Two resistance tolerances specified
– Class A = ±(0.15 + 0.002*t)°C or 100.00 ±0.06 Ω at 0ºC
– Class B = ±(0.3 + 0.005*t)°C or 100.00 ±0.12 Ω at 0ºC
 Wire wound RTDs
• Two types of wire-wound elements:
– those with coils of wire packaged inside a ceramic or glass tube (the
most commonly used wire-wound construction),
– those wound around a glass or ceramic core and covered with additional
glass or ceramic material (used in more specialized applications).
 RTD Applications
 Air conditioning and
refrigeration servicing
 Furnace servicing
 Foodservice processing
 Medical research
 Textile production
 RTDs
Advantages Disadvantages
• Most stable over time • High cost
• Most accurate • Slowest response time
• Most repeatable temperature • Low sensitivity to small
measurement temperature changes
• Very resistant to contamination/ • Sensitive to vibration (strains the
• corrosion of the RTD element platinum element wire)
• Decalibration if used beyond
sensor’s temperature ratings
• Somewhat fragile
 thermowell
• Thermowells are tubular fittings used to
protect temperature sensors installed in
industrial processes. A thermowell consists of a
tube closed at one end and mounted in the
process stream. A temperature sensor such as
a thermometer, thermocouple or
resistance temperature detector is inserted in
the open end of the tube, which is usually in
the open air outside the process piping or
vessel and any thermal insulation. The process
fluid transfers heat to the thermowell wall,
which in turn transfer heat to the sensor. Since
more mass is present, the sensor's response to
process temperature changes is delayed. If the
sensor fails, it can be easily replaced without
draining the vessel or piping. To be
representative of the average temperature of
fluid, the thermowell must extend a few per
cent of the inside diameter of the process pipe
or vessel.
 Thermistors
• A semiconductor used as a temperature sensor.
• Mixture of metal oxides pressed into a bead, wafer or other shape.
• Beads can be very small, less than 1 mm in some cases.
• The resistance decreases as temperature increases, negative temperature
coefficient (NTC) thermistor.
 Thermistors
• Most are seen in medical
equipment markets.
• Thermistors are also used are
for engine coolant, oil, and air
temperature measurement in
the transportation industry.
 Thermistors
Advantages Disadvantages
• High sensitivity to small • Limited temperature range
temperature changes • Fragile
• Temperature measurements • Some initial accuracy “drift”
become more stable with use • Decalibration if used beyond
• Copper or nickel extension the sensor’s temperature
wires can be used ratings
• Lack of standards for
replacement
 Types
• NTC
• PTC
NTC

The most commonly used oxides are those of

manganese, nickel, cobalt, iron, copper and
titanium. The fabrication of commercial NTC
thermistors uses basic ceramics Technology
• The first group consists of bead type thermistors.
• All of the bead type thermistors have platinum alloy
leadwires which are directly sintered into the ceramic
body. Bead type thermistors include the following:
– Bare Beads
– Glass Coated Beads
– Ruggedized Beads
– Miniature Glass Probes
– Glass Probes
– Glass Rods
– Bead-in-Glass Enclosures
• The second group of thermistors have metallized surface
contacts. All of these types are available with radial or axial leads
as well as without leads for surface mounting or mounting by
means of spring contacts.
• Metallized surface contact thermistors include the following:
– Disks
– Chips (Wafers)
– Surface Mounts
– Flakes
– Rods
– Washers
 PTC
• Most PTC thermistors are of the "switching"
type, which means that their resistance rises
suddenly at a certain critical temperature. The
devices are made of a doped polycrystalline
ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO3)
and other compounds.
Self Heating effect
 Thermistors: Applications

• Thermometry!
• PTC thermistors can be used as current-limiting devices for
circuit protection, as fuses.
• Current through the device causes a small amount of resistive
heating.
• If the current is large enough to generate more heat than the
device can lose to its surroundings, the device heats up, causing
its resistance to increase, and therefore causing even more
heating.
 Thermistors: Applications
• NTC thermistors are used as
resistance thermometers in low-temperature
measurements of the order of 10 K.
 Temperature Control
(A Wholly Owned Subsidiary of “Process Control”)

• “Process controls” are required to keep

parameters constant.
• “Process controls” also allow one parameter to
be changed in a defined, controlled manner.
 Terminology
• Controller (temperature): A device that makes
continuous operator attention and input
unnecessary.
• Examples
– Cruise control on car
– Fill valve in your tank
– Thermostat in your house
• This is an example of one simple type of temperature
controller: “On-off”
 Terminology

• Set Point: the desired temperature that you

want in your system
• Error: difference between set point and actual
temperature in your system
– Error = Set Point - Measurement
 Specific Example
• You want to control the temperature of a
furnace.
• n.b.: you actually control the current fed into
the heating coils or windings
• Example works for any general process control
with feedback
 Thermistors
Advantages Disadvantages
• High sensitivity to small • Limited temperature range
temperature changes • Fragile
• Temperature measurements
become more stable with use
• Copper or nickel extension • Lack of standards for
wires can be used replacement
 Non Contact Temperature Transducers
• Optical Pyrometer
• IR thermometers

•A pyrometer is a device that is used for the temperature measurement of an

object.
•The device actually tracks and measures the amount of heat that is radiated from
an object.
• The thermal heat radiates from the object to the optical system present inside
the pyrometer.
•The optical system makes the thermal radiation into a better focus and passes it
to the detector.
•The output of the detector will be related to the input thermal radiation.

Source:http://www.instrumentationtoday.com/optical-pyrometer/2011/08/
Optical Pyrometer
• In an optical pyrometer, a brightness comparison is made to
measure the temperature.
• As a measure of the reference temperature, a color change with
the growth in temperature is taken.
• The device compares the brightness produced by the radiation
of the object whose temperature is to be measured, with that of
a reference temperature.
• The reference temperature is produced by a lamp whose
brightness can be adjusted till its intensity becomes equal to the
brightness of the source object.
• For an object, its light intensity always depends on the
temperature of the object, whatever may be its wavelength.
After adjusting the temperature, the current passing through it is
measured using a multimeter, as its value will be proportional to
the temperature of the source when calibrated.
 Working
• The radiation from the source is emitted and the optical objective lens captures
it.
• The lens helps in focusing the thermal radiation on to the reference bulb.
• The observer watches the process through the eye piece and corrects it in such
a manner that the reference lamp filament has a sharp focus and the filament is
super-imposed on the temperature source image. The observer starts changing
the rheostat values and the current in the reference lamp changes. This in turn,
changes its intensity. This change in current can be observed in three different
ways.

1. The filament is dark. That is, cooler than the temperature source.

2. Filamnet is bright. That is, hotter than the temperature source.

3. Filament disappears. Thus, there is equal brightness between the filament and temperature source.

• At this time, the current that flows in the reference lamp is measured, as its value is a
measure of the temperature of the radiated light in the temperature source, when
calibrated.
Disadvantages
• As the measurement is based on the light intensity,
the device can be used only in applications with a
minimum temperature of 700 degree Celsius.
• The device is not useful for obtaining continuous
values of temperatures at small intervals.
Applications
• Used to measure temperatures of liquid metals or
highly heated materials.
• Can be used to measure furnace temperatures.
 Infrared Sensors
• An infrared sensor intercepts a portion of the infrared energy radiated by
an object.

• Many types Optical Pyrometers, Radiation Pyrometers, Total Radiation

Pyrometers, Automatic Infrared Thermometers, Fiber optic
Thermometers, and many more.
 Infrared Applications
• Manufacturing process like metals, glass,
cement, ceramics, semiconductors, plastics,
paper, textiles, coatings.

• Automation and feedback control

• Improve safety in fire-fighting, rescues and

detection of criminal activities.

• Used to monitor and measure human body

temperatures with one second time response.

• Reliability and maintenance needs from building

heating to electrical power generation and
distribution
 Infrared Sensors
Advantages Disadvantages
• No contact with the product • High initial cost
required • More complex - support
• Response times as fast or faster electronics required
than thermocouples • Field of view and spot size may
• No corrosion or oxidation to restrict sensor application
affect sensor accuracy • Measuring accuracy affected by
• Good stability over time dust, smoke, background, etc.
• High repeatability
 Semiconductor temperature sensors
• Are small and result from the fact that
semiconductor diodes have voltage-current
characteristics that are temperature sensitive.
• Temperature measurement ranges that are
small compared to thermocouples and RTDs,
but can be quite accurate and inexpensive.
• LM35
• LM34
• DS1820
 LM35
• LM35 is a temperature measuring device
having an analog output voltage proportional to
the temperature.
• It provides output voltage in Centigrade
(Celsius). It does not require any external
calibration circuitry.
• The sensitivity of LM35 is 10 mV/degree
Celsius. As temperature increases, output
voltage also increases.
– E.g. 250 mV means 25°C.
• It is a 3-terminal sensor used to measure
surrounding temperature ranging from -55 °C
to 150 °C.
• LM35 gives temperature output which is more
precise than thermistor output.
 Specification and Pinout of LM35
Temperature Sensor

• Operating Voltage: 4 V to 30 V
• Output Voltage: 10mV/°C
• Sensitivity: 10mV/°C
• Linearity Error: ±1°C (for 0°C to +100°C)
• Operating Temperature: -55°C to +150°C
• Output Impedance: 100 Ω
• Power Consumption: 60 μA (typical)
• Package Type: TO-92, TO-220, SOIC
• Output Type: Analog
• Accuracy: ±1°C (typical)
Alternate options for LM35 Sensor

• TMP36
• DHT11
• DS18B20
• LM34
• RTD PT100
TMP36

DHT11

DS18B20
 LM34
• The LM34 series devices are precision
integrated-circuit temperature sensors, whose
output voltage is linearly proportional to the
Fahrenheit temperature.
 Pressure
• Pressure
• Pressure is defined as the amount of surface force
exerted by a fluid on any boundary it is in contact
with. It can be written as:

Force
Pr essure 
Area of which the force is applied
F
P (2.1)
A
 Absolute and Gauge Pressure

• Pressure measurements are generally indicated as being either

absolute or gauge pressure.
• Gauge pressure
• is the pressure measured above or below the atmospheric pressure
• Can be positive or negative.
• A negative gauge pressure is also known as vacuum pressure.
• Absolute pressure
• uses absolute zero, which is the lowest possible pressure.
• Therefore, an absolute pressure will always be positive.
• A simple equation relating the two pressure measuring system can
be written as:
• Pabs = Pgauge + Patm
 Atmospheric pressure
• Refers to the prevailing pressure in the air
around us.
• It varies somewhat with changing weather
conditions, and it decreases with increasing
altitude.
• At sea level, average atmospheric pressure is
101.3 kPa (abs), 14.7 psi (abs), or 1
atmosphere (1 bar = 1x105 Pa).
• This is commonly referred to as ‘standard
atmospheric pressure’.
Pressure Gauges
•C-type
•Spiral
•Twisted
•Helical
 Bourdon Tube
• Hollow tube
• When tube is pressurized …..straighten
• Gear system and dail is attached
• Convert pressure into displacement
• Secondary transducers
C-type
 Helical
Helical is a bourdon tube wound in the form of helix. It
allows the tip movement to be converted to a circular
motion. By installing a central shaft inside the helix
along its axis and connecting it to the tip, the tip
movement become a circular motion of the shaft.
 Bellows type

• Made of several
capsules
• Flattened structure
• Metal plate
• Pressurized expands
• Mechanical movement
• Small pressures
 Bellows
• The bellows, is another elastic-element type of pressure sensor
that operates on very similar principles to the diaphragm pressure
sensor.
• Pressure changes within the bellows, which is typically fabricated
as a seamless tube of either metal or metal alloy, produce
translational motion of the end of the bellows that can be
measured by
– capacitive, inductive (LVDT) or potentiometric transducers.
 Bellows……
• Different versions can measure either absolute
pressure (up to 2.5 bar) or gauge pressure (up to
150 bar).
• Double-bellows versions also exist that are
designed to measure differential pressures of up
to 30 bar.
• Bellows have a typical measurement uncertainty
of only +- 0.5%, but they have a relatively high
manufacturing cost and are prone to failure
 Diaphragm
• made of thin metal
• flexible materials
• relate to elasticity
• measure pressures up to 25 bar (2500 kPa or
370 psi).
• Usually a diaphragm consists of a stainless steel
corrugated disc,
 Diaphragm
• The diaphragm, is one of three types of
elastic element pressure transducer.
• Applied pressure causes displacement of
the diaphragm
– This movement is measured by a
displacement transducer.
• Different versions of diaphragm sensors
can measure both absolute pressure (up
to 50 bar) and gauge pressure (up to
2000 bar) according to whether the space
on one side of the diaphragm is
respectively evacuated or is open to the
atmosphere.
 Diaphragm…..
• A diaphragm can also be used to measure differential pressure
(up to 2.5 bar) by applying the two pressures to the two sides of
the diaphragm.
• The diaphragm can be either plastic, metal alloy, stainless steel
or ceramic.
• Plastic diaphragms are cheapest, but metal diaphragms give
better accuracy.
• Stainless steel is normally used in high temperature or corrosive
environments.
• Ceramic diaphragms are resistant even to strong acids and
alkalis, and are used when the operating environment is
particularly harsh.
 SPIRAL
Spiral Bourdon Tube is made by winding a partially flattened metal tube into a spiral
having several turns instead of a single C-bend arc. The tip movement of the spiral
equals the sum of the tip movements of all its individual C-bend arcs. Therefore it
produces a greater tip movement with a C-bend bourdon tube. It is mainly used in
low-pressure application. Spiral bourdon tube is shown in figure.
SPIRAL
 Advantages of the Spiral and Helical Tubes over the C-Type
Bourdon Tube

• Both the spiral and helical tubes are more sensitive than the C-Type tube. This
means that for a given applied pressure a spiral or helical tube will show more
movement than an equivalent C-Type tube, thus avoiding the need for a
magnifying linkage.

• Spiral and helical tubes can be manufactured in very much smaller sizes than
the equivalent C-Type tubes. Hence, they can be fitted into smaller spaces,
such as inside recorders or controller cases where a C-Type would be
unsuitable because of the size.
Spring and Piston
 PISTON type

The possition of piston is directly related to pressure.

Displacement
Secondary sensor can be used
 Level
• Float
• Dip stick
• Scale
• Sightglass
• Float & chain
Float & mechanical linkage
Chain Float
 Force Measurement
• Mechanical types.
• Hydraulic types.
• Electrical strain gauge types.
 MECHANICAL TYPES
• complete measuring systems
• Spring
• Basic measurement
• Deflection of spring is directly proportional to
applied force
 HYDRAULIC TYPES
• Load cell
• Cell is liquid filled
• Uses piston
• When force applied it pressurized
• Pressure gauge is used
• P=F/A
 Speedometer
1. When the engine turns over, the driveshaft turns to
make the wheels spin round.
2. The speedometer cable, powered by the driveshaft,
turns as well.
3. The cable spins a magnet around at the same speed
inside the speed cup. The magnet rotates
continually in the same direction (in this case,
counter-clockwise).
4. The spinning magnet creates eddy currents in the
speed cup.
5. The eddy currents make the speed cup rotate counter-
clockwise as well in an attempt to catch up with the
magnet. Remember that the magnet and the speed
cup are not joined together in any way—there's air
in between them.
6. The hair spring tightens, restraining the speed cup so
it can turn only a little way.
7. As the speed cup turns, it turns the pointer up the
dial, indicating the car's speed.

Eddy current: an induced electric current formed within the body of a

conductor in a varying magnetic field
 Magnetic Drag For Car Speedometers
• Most commonly used technique for
speedometers in cars.
• Based on the principal of magnetic
inductance.
• A magnet is connected to the
moving shaft and it induces a
torque in the stationary disc.
• This torque is measured to compute
the speed of the cars.
 Velocity Measurement
• Angular velocity
• Linear velocity

Reference: EL &ES measurements and instrumentation By A.K.sawhney

 Linear velocity
• Most commonly used electro-magnetic
transducer
• Voltage produced in a coil on account of
change in flux
• Types
– Moving magnetic type
– Moving coil type
 Moving magnetic type
• Sensing element….rod coupled with device
• Rod made from permenant magnet
• Coil surrounded the PM
• Motion of magnet induced a voltage in coil
• Amplitude of the voltage directly proportional
to the velocity
• Permenanat magnet moves in and out
 Advantages
• Its maintenance is negligible.
• The output voltage is linearly proportional to
velocity.
• Cost of manufacture is less.
 DisAdvantages
• Performance is affected by stray magnetic
fields and hence noise is caused.
• Frequency response is poor.
 Application
•
Used as a velocity transducer to convert
velocity to measureable voltage.
 Moving coil Type Velocity Transducer

• Basic Principle of Moving coil Type Velocity

Transducer

• A coil moves in a magnetic field according to the velocity applied.

• The voltage in the coil becomes a measure of the velocity when calibrated.
 Description of Moving coil Type Velocity Transducer

• The instrument has permanent

pole pieces which generate the
magnetic field.
• There is a pivoted arm on which
a coil is mounted.
• There is a mass attached to the
end of the coil.
• The whole device is contained in
an antimagnetic case.
 Operation of Moving coil Type Velocity Transducer

• The velocity to be measured is applied to the arm.

• A voltage is generated on account of motion of the coil in the magnetic field.
• The output voltage is proportional to the velocity.
 Advantages of Moving coil Type Velocity Transducer

• The antimagnetic case reduces the effects of

stray magnetic field.
• Damping is obtained electrically.
• There is high stability under varying
temperature conditions.
 Applications of Moving coil Type Velocity Transducer

• These transducers are used for measuring velocities in linear,

sinusoidal or random manner.
 Angular velocity
• Electrical Techometers
– DC
– AC

DC
• Advantages:
– Direction of rotation is directly indicated by
polarity on the o/p voltage
– The o/p voltages is typically 10mV/rpm
– Can be measured with volt meter

Disadvantages
Maintanance b/c of brushes
The o/p voltmeter should have high resistance
AC Techometers
• Vary voltage and frequency
• Limitatioms on low frequency
 Basic Inductive Displacement Sensor.
• Uses the simple principle of
mutual inductance.
• AC input is applied to coil A &
output is measured across B.
• Movement of the ferromagnetic
core results in inductance from A
to B
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer.

• Used for measurements in the

range of mm or cm.
• Supply is provided to the middle
coil and output is taken across
the other two coils.
• Differential amplifier is used to
measure the differential output
from the windings.
 Mutual-induction transducers and Differential Transformers.

• The basic arrangement of a Mutual-induction transducer constitutes

two coils, the primary and secondary winding. one of the coils
carries an AC excitation that induces a steady AC voltage in the
other coil
• In Mutual-induction transducers, a change in the flux linkage is
effected by one of the two common techniques. one technique is to
move an object made of ferromagnetic material within the flux path.
• The other common way to change the flux linkage is to move one
coil with respect to the other.
 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER(LVDT)

• AN LVDT transducer comprises a coil

former on to which three coils are
wound.
• The primary coil is excited with an AC
current, the secondary coils are wound
such that when a ferrite core is in the
central linear position, an equal voltage
is induced in to each coil.
• The secondary are connected in
opposite so that in the central position
the outputs of the secondary cancels
each other out.
 LVDT contd…

• The excitation is applied to the primary winding

and the armature assists the induction of current in
to secondary coils.
•
• When the armature is in the central position there
is an equal voltage induced in to both secondary
coils. The sum of secondary outputs cancels each
other out resulting in a zero output.
• As the armature moves in to sec.1,the result is that
sum of sec1 and sec2 favors sec1.
• As the armature moves in to sec2,the sum favors
sec2.
• The out put is an AC waveform .
LVDT
 POTIENTIOMETERS
• A potentiometer is a resistive-type transducer that converts either linear or
angular displacement into an output voltage by moving a sliding contact along
the surface of a resistive element.
• The potentiometer is a displacement transducer.
• consists of resistive material whose resistance is proportional to its length.
• A fixed voltage is applied across the coil using an external voltage supply.
• The output signal is the DC voltage between the movable contact sliding on
the terminal of the coil.
 Transducer for vibration
• Vibrations give early warning of impending
conditions which may develop &lead to
complete failure & destruction of equipment
• Used in power plants, turbines
• Most vibrations are sinusodial in nature
• Amp gives displacement
• By measuring displacement, velocity or
acceleration - vibrations measured
 Piezoelectric Transducers
• Piezoelectricity is the electricity produced by applying
pressure.
• Piezoelectric materials: Barium titanate, single crystal quartz.
• Piezoelectric Effect:
– When mechanical stress or strain is applied to the piezoelectric
material, it generates an electric charge and associated potential
difference.
– The direct application of the piezoelectric effect is used in pressure and
strain-measuring devices
 Contd
• The most commonly known piezoelectric material is
Quartz (SiO2). Many other important minerals are
often found within quartz deposits.
• Tiny pieces of quartz are used in watches, clocks and
radio transceivers to provide a stable and precise
frequency for the circuitry.
• Piezoelectric lighters use a spring loaded hammer to
strike a small crystal which will produce a high
voltage spark.
 Strain Gauge
• Strain gauges are devices that experience a change in
resistance when they are stretched or strained.
• detect very small displacements, usually in the range 0–50 μm.
• typically used as part of other transducers.
• for example:
– diaphragm type pressure sensors that convert pressure
changes into small displacements of the diaphragm.
• Strain gauges are manufactured to various nominal values of
resistance, of which 120, 350 and 1000 are very common.
• The traditional type of strain gauge consists of a length of
metal resistance wire formed into a zigzag pattern and
mounted onto a flexible backing sheet
• The wire is nominally of circular cross-section. As strain is
applied to the gauge, the shape of the cross-section of the
resistance wire distorts, changing the cross-sectional area. As
the resistance of the wire per unit length is inversely
proportional to the cross-sectional area, there is a
consequential change in resistance.
• In recent years, wire-type gauges have largely been replaced,
either by metal-foil
• types as shown in Figure or by semiconductor types.
 Ultrasonic Transducers
• Ultrasonic devices are used in many fields of measurement,
particularly for measuring fluid flow rates, liquid levels and
translational displacements.
• Ultrasound is a band of frequencies in the range above 20 kHz,
that is, above the sonic range that humans can usually hear.
• Measurement devices that use ultrasound consist of one device
that transmits an ultrasound wave and another device that
receives the wave.
• Changes in the measured variable are determined either
measuring the change in time taken for the ultrasound wave to
travel between the transmitter and receiver, or, alternatively, by
measuring the change in phase or frequency of the transmitted
wave.
• The most common form of ultrasonic element is a piezoelectric
crystal contained in a casing.
• Such elements can operate interchangeably as either a transmitter
or receiver. These are available with operating frequencies that
vary between 20 kHz and 15 MHz.
• voltage is applied to the element, it behaves as an
ultrasonic transmitter and an ultrasound wave is
produced. The system also works in the reverse direction
as an ultrasonic receiver.
• The transmission speed of ultrasound varies according to
the medium through which it travels. Transmission speeds
for some common media are given in Table
• When transmitted through air, the speed of
ultrasound is affected by environmental
factors such as temperature, humidity.
PIR Motion Detector
• PIRs are made of a Pyroelectric sensor. which can detect
levels of infrared radiation.
• Everything emits some low-level radiation, and the
hotter something is, the more radiation is emitted. The
sensor in a motion detector is split into two halves. The
reason for that is that we are looking to detect motion
(change) not average IR levels.
• The two halves are wired up so that they cancel each
other out. If one half sees more or less IR radiation than
the other, the output will swing high or low.
• PIR sensors allow you to sense motion, almost
always used to detect whether a human has
moved in or out of the sensor range.
• They are small, inexpensive, low-power, easy
to use, and don't wear out. For that reason,
they are commonly found in appliances and
gadgets used in homes or businesses. They are
often referred to as PIR, "Passive Infrared",
"Pyroelectric", or "IR motion" sensors.
 PIR Sensor Working Principle
• The passive infrared sensor does not radiate energy
to space.
• It receives the infrared radiation from the human
body to make an alarm.
• Any object with temperature is constantly radiating
infrared rays to the outside world.
• The surface temperature of the human body is
between 36° C - 27 ° C and most of its radiant
energy concentrated in the wavelength range of 8
um-12 um.
 LDR
• An LDR is a component that has a resistance
that changes with the light intensity that falls
upon it. They have a resistance that falls with an
increase in the light intensity falling upon the
device.
 LDR
• LDRs are made from semiconductor materials
to enable them to have their light sensitive
properties. Many materials can be used, but
one popular material for these photoresistors
is cadmium sulphide (CdS).

• CdS sensor
•
 Pressure Transducers
• Introduction to Pressure Transducers

A pressure transducer, sometimes called a pressure transmitter, is a

transducer that converts pressure into an analog electrical signal.
• Various types of pressure transducers available, one of the most common
is the strain-gage base transducer.
• The conversion of pressure into an electrical signal is achieved by the
physical deformation of strain gages which are bonded into the diaphragm
of the pressure transducer and wired into a wheatstone bridge
configuration.
• Pressure applied to the pressure transducer produces a deflection of the
diaphragm which introduces strain to the gages. The strain will produce an
electrical resistance change proportional to the pressure

reference
 The Electrical Output of Pressure Transducers

• millivolt, amplified voltage and 4-20mA

• Millivolt Output Pressure Transducers
Transducers with millivolt output are normally the most
economical pressure transducers. The output of the millivolt
transducer is nominally around 30mV. The actual output is
directly proportional to the pressure transducer input power or
excitation. If the excitation fluctuates, the output will change
also. Because of this dependence on the excitation level,
regulated power supplies are suggested for use with millivolt
transducers. Because the output signal is so low, the transducer
should not be located in an electrically noisy environment. The
distances between the transducer and the readout instrument
should also be kept relatively short.
• Voltage Output Pressure Transducers
Voltage output transducers include integral signal conditioning
which provide a much higher output than a millivolt transducer.
The output is normally 0-5Vdc or 0-10Vdc. Although model
specific, the output of the transducer is not normally a direct
function of excitation. This means unregulated power supplies
are often sufficient as long as they fall within a specified power
range. Because they have a higher level output these
transducers are not as susceptible to electrical noise as millivolt
transducers and can therefore be used in much more industrial
environments.
• 4-20 mA Output Pressure Transducers
These types of transducers are also known as
pressure transmitters. Since a 4-20mA signal is
least affected by electrical noise and resistance
in the signal wires, these transducers are best
used when the signal must be transmitted long
distances. It is not uncommon to use these
transducers in applications where the lead
wire must be 1000 feet or more.
 Pressure Sensors

• Used to detect pressure of fluids

or gasses.
• Technologies (many)
– Strain gage
– Piezoresistive
– Microelectromechanical systems
(MEMS)
• Each sensor has a pressure range
that it works in.
• Most have analog outputs that
need amplification
– Some have built-in amplifiers for
direct connection into
microcontroller
 Pressure Sensors
Types

• Differential Pressure
– Difference between two or more pressures
introduced as inputs to the sensing unit
– 2 input
• Absolute/Gage Pressure
– Pressure relative to perfect vacuum pressure
or set pressure (such as pressure at sea level)
– 1 input
 Pressure Sensors
Applications

• Measure pressure of gas or fluids

• Measure flow
– pressure sensors in conjunction with the
venturi effect to measure flow
• Measure depth of water
– When measuring liquids, most sensors are not
rated to have unclean liquids contact the
sensor components. A small amount of air in
the tube right before the sensor will create a
barrier from the liquid.
Controllers
• Quick Details
• Place of Origin:FUJ,Xiamen, China China (Mainland)
• Brand Name:Kehao
• Model Number:KH101
• Usage:Industrial
• Theory:Temperature Controller,temperature controller, process controller
• Certificate:CE,ROHS
• Accuracy:+-(0.2%FS+1) dIgit
• Temperature input:RTD:PT100,CU50,CU100
• Temperaure input:T.C.:K,S,E,J,T,B,N
• Linear Current Input:4-20mA, 0-10mA
• Linear Voltage Input:0-5V,1-5V
• Application:temperature, pressure,level, gravity, flow,humidity
Piezo electric type Pressure
• Measures Dynamic Pressure
• Not suitable for static Pressure
SENSOR CONSTRUCTION
 PHotovoltiac cell
• Photovoltaics is the direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic
level.
• Some materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that
causes them to absorb photons of light and release electrons.
• When these free electrons are captured, an electric current results that can be
used as electricity.
•
 History
• The photoelectric effect was first noted by a French
physicist, Edmund Bequerel, in 1839, who found
that certain materials would produce small
amounts of electric current when exposed to light.
• The first photovoltaic module was built by Bell
Laboratories in 1954. It was billed as a solar battery
and was mostly just a curiosity as it was too
expensive to gain widespread use.
• In the 1960s, the space industry began to make the
first serious use of the technology to provide power
aboard spacecraft.
http://science1.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2002/solarcells/
 1-1-2. Various type of PV cell

Conversion
Conversion Efficiency
Efficiency
of
of Module
Module
• Types and Conversion Efficiency of Solar Cell
Single
Single crystal
crystal 10
10 -- 17%
17%
Crystalline
Crystalline
Silicon
Silicon Poly
Poly crystalline
crystalline 10
10 -- 13%
13%
Semiconductor
Semiconductor
Non-crystalline
Non-crystalline Amorphous
Amorphous 77 -- 10%
10%
Solar
Solar Compound
Compound
Cell
Cell Semiconductor
Semiconductor Gallium
Gallium Arsenide
Arsenide (GaAs)
(GaAs) 18
18 -- 30%
30%

Dye-sensitized
Dye-sensitized Type
Type 77 -- 8%
8%
Organic
Organic
Semiconductor
Semiconductor Organic
Organic Thin
Thin Layer
Layer Type
Type 22 -- 3%
3%

Electric Energy Output

Conversion Efficiency = x 100%
Energy of Insolation on cell
 Types of Solar Panels
1) Monocrystalline
• Uniform Blue Colour
• Oldest and most efficient PV
cell
• Production process is slow and
expensive
• 20 Year guarantee (usually for
80% rated Watts)
• BP Solar, Siemens
 2/ Polycrystalline
• Module efficiency ~ 9 - 13%
• Irregular blue colour
• Less expensive to produce due to simpler
manufacturing process
• Advantage over monocrystalline is that it is
less likely to be damaged when it is partly
shaded
• 20 Year guarantee (usually for 80% rated
Watts)
• Solarex, Kyocera
 3/ Amorphous Silicon
• Low Module efficiencies
• Only 3 - 10%
• Production process considerably less
expensive than crystalline cells
• Light and flexible, so can meet a range
of applications
• 10 year guarantee
• Unisolar, Intersolar
 1-1-2. Various type of PV cell

Single crystal Poly crystalline

• Crystal cell (Single crystal and Poly crystalline
Silicon)

Formed by melting high purity silicon For mass production, cell is sliced from
like as Integrated Circuit roughly crystallized ingot.
 1-1-2. Various type of PV cell
• Aluminum Electrode
(Silver colored wire)
• To avoid shading,
• Surface of PV cell
Example of Poly Crystalline PV
electrode is very fine.

Anti reflection film

(Blue colored film)

Front Surface
(N-Type side)

• Back surface is P-type.

• All back surface is
aluminum electrode
with full reflection.
 1-1-2. Various type of PV cell

Single crystal Poly crystalline

• PV Module (Single crystal, Poly crystalline
Silicon)
128W 120W
(26.5V , (25.7V ,
4.8A) 4.7A)

1200mm 1200mm
(3.93ft) （ 3.93ft ）

800mm （ 2.62ft ） Same size 800mm (2.62ft)

Efficiency is higher Efficiency is lower

 PIR Motion Sensor
• Passive Infra-Red
– PIR sensors allow you to sense motion
– used to detect whether a human has moved in or
out of the sensors range.
– They are small, inexpensive, lowpower, easy to use
– commonly found in appliances and gadgets used in
homes or businesses.
– often referred to as PIR, "Passive Infrared",
"Pyroelectric", or "IR motion" sensors.
 PIR ….

• basically made of a pyroelectric sensor which can detect levels of infrared

radiation.
•Everything emits some low level radiation, and the hotter something is, the more
radiation is emitted.
• The sensor in a motion detector is actually split in two halves.
The reason for that is that we looking to detect motion
(change) not average IR levels.
• The two halves are wired up so that they cancel each other
out. If one half sees more or less IR radiation than the other,
the output will swing high or low
When a warm body like a human or animal passes by, it first intercepts one half of
the PIR sensor, which causes a positive differential change between the two
halves. When the warm body leaves the sensing area, the reverse happens,
whereby the sensor generates a negative differential change. These change
pulses are what is detected.
Supporting circuitry
 Photo Interrupt
• Uses emitter and detector photo
diode pair
• With no obstruction detector is
high
• When an object blocks the light
the detector is low

• Advantages
– Simple to interface
– Inexpensive
– Reliable
 Photo Interrupt
Types

• Wide variety of packages and

orientations
• Types
– Logic (digital ±5 volts)
– Transistor/diode (analog)
• Manufacturers
– Fairchild
– Honeywell
 Photo Interrupt
Applications

• Encoder wheel for angular

measurements.
– Computer mouse with a ball
 Photo Interrupt
Applications

• Detect holes or slots for

positioning of liner slides
– Elevators
• Detect the location of products
– Assembly line