Chapter Seven

Taxonomy of Organisms
Contents

1. Early attempts to classify organisms

2. Modern views of classification

3. Domains of life and the hierarchical system of

classification
4. Binomial nomenclature
What is taxonomy?

Was coined by a Swiss naturalist, De

Candolle, in the French form as "taxonomie"
in 1813
"taxis and nomos" which means arrangement
and law respectively

The law governing the classification or

arrangement of organisms into taxa
Taxonomy is the basic science since no start on
understanding the wealth of variation can be made
until some sort of classification is adopted

It is also most all-embracing and ultimate of all

biological sciences because taxonomy is not complete
until the data from other fields of investigation have
been incorporated
It is mainly concerned with:
• Classification: Is ordering of organisms into
hierarchy of ranks distinguished by certain
characters; or based on similarities and/or
differences
• Nomenclature: Is the naming of groups of organisms
and the rules governing the application of the
names
• Identification: Is the naming of an organism by
reference to an already existent classification
• It involves referring an individual specimen to a
previously classified and named system
1. Early Attempts to Classify
Organisms

• The development of modern taxonomy was not a linear

path
• Several early Greek and Roman philosophers enumerated
organisms
 Aristotle (384–322 BC)
• Philosopher who contributed most extensively to the
development of the modern biology
• Classified all living organisms in to two : plants and Animals
• Was the first who attempted to classify all the kinds of animals
in the History of Animals
• Some of the terms he gave to animals, such as “invertebrates”
and “vertebrates”, are still used
• Viewed life was hierarchical
• The first introducer of the two key concepts of taxonomy:
classification of organism by type and binomial definition but
didn’t use the system methodically
• Aristotle applied “similarities” as a principle to group animals
Theophrastus (370-285 BC)

• Observer of mainly plants

• He was called the father of Botany by Linnaeus
• Was the first taxonomist to write down a classification in a
permanent and logical form
• In his book "De Historia Plantarum", he classified 480
kinds of plants based on their habit
• However, his work reflects the philosophy, which incorporates
the principle of the rules of dichotomy or the “Excluded
Middle”
• Any given organisms is either A or not A
• According to Theophrastus classification system, there are no
any intermediate organisms
• The artificial system of classification was mainly based on
vegetative characters
• Such system separated the closely related species since they
were based on a few characteristics
Contd…
• It was based on one or few characters; hence the diverse
plants were placed into limited number of groups
• Ex; trees, shrubs, herbs
• He was typologists, belief that every natural group of
organisms has an invariant, generalized or idealized pattern
shared by all members of the group
• Introduced no new principles of classification
 Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.)

• He was a Roman scholar and naturalist who wrote

encyclopaedic books termed Historia naturalis,
• Mentioned and categorized plants in terms horticultural
practices, medicinal uses, and timber use practices
• In his classification, he used a similar classification as his
predecessors' errors
 Dioscorides (1st Century AD)

• He was a Greek physician

• Studied and described about 600 medicinal plants in his book
“De Matera Medica” with their useful applications
 Caesalpinus (1519-1603)

• In his book "De Plantis" he illustrated about 1500 plant

species
• He classified plants based on definite morphological criteria
mainly on the basis of habit, fruits, seeds, and ovaries and
their position
Bauhin (1554-1631) and G. Bauhin
(1560-1624)

• They were brothers of Swiss botanists who worked separately

but along rather similar lines
• G. Bauhin produced to order the state of nomenclature which
existed to some extent currently
• He was also notably remembered for his recognition of
genera and species as major taxonomic levels or used a binary
nomenclature composed of the genus name followed by a
single specific
• J. P. de Tournfort (1656-1708) also carried out further
Bauhin's promotion of the rank of genus with a clear
explanation
Linnaeus and Post Linnaean
Classifications

• Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swede Taxonomist and

Physician
• Was the founder of modern taxonomy both of plants and
animals
• The system of nomenclature that we employ today is
essentially “Linnaeus”
• Linnaeus produced important books that he classified all
known animals, plants and minerals
• The two most important works are: Genera Plantarum
(1737) and Species Plantarum (1753), which listed and
briefly described the genera and the species
• Though Linnaeus was the father of modern taxonomy, and
his classification system was popular largely because its
simplicity, his classification system was artificial-which
depends only on few characteristics like stamens and pistil
number and position
• The foundation of modern classification comes mainly after
the works of other taxonomists
• M. Adanson (1727-1806), De Jussieu (1748-1836), and J. de
Lamarck (1744-1829), A.P. de Candolle and C. Darwin
(1859)
• Never followed artificial system of Linnaeus classification
 Michel Adanson (1727-1806)

• Is most remembered for championing the idea that in

classification one should use a great range of characters
covering all aspects of the organisms without placing greater
emphasis on some than on others
• This is called an empirical approach
• Adanson was a severe critic of Linnaeus' works
 Lamarck

• Is best known for his theory of evolution, Lamarckism,

whereby characters acquired during life become inherited
• De Candolle (1778-1841) wrote a 17 volume books, in
which he first introduced the word taxonomy in the French
form Taxonomie
 Darwin

• Evolutionary theory of Darwin had little immediate impact

on classifications of organisms
• The previous classifications were based on morphological
similarities or dissimilarities
• But after Darwin work, evolutionary thinking was
incorporated into classification system and population
thinking came into picture
• However, the early classification systems were broad and
vague as indicated by generic terms
• Like animals, worms, sedges, grasses and trees, etcetera
• Use oriented
• Visual/ morphology
• Behavioral (Aristotle classified animals cold blooded and
warm blooded)
• Thus, the modern classification system was developed
2. Modern Views of Classification

• Depend up on the combined evidence of ;

• Morphology, ultrastructure and molecular phylogeny
• In classification characters /character states are used to
classify or categorize organisms
 Different approaches have been
developed to compare these characters

Lead to the development of five

different classification systems
2.1. Artificial classification system

• Only one or at most a few characters are selected for use

in making comparison among organisms
• Because a few characters are involved, the difficulties
encountered in describing, measuring and comparing the
character states usually are minimal
• Character selection is priori before the OTU’s
• Ranking is done subjectively
• Artificial system is monothetic i.e. possession of
unique set of characters/features is both sufficient and
necessary for membership in the group defined
• Artificial system was the first to be used in the
classification of organisms
• Theophrastus and Linnaeus are good example of
artificial system of classification
 2.2. Natural classification system

• This classification system is based up on several to many

characters selected for their value in positively correlating
with character states of groups in ranks containing high
information content
• This system is therefore polythetic
• i.e. it places together organisms that have the greatest
number of shared features, and no single feature is either
essential to group membership or is sufficient to make an
organism a member of the group
• Posteriori character selection
• Adanson and De Jussieu are good examples of natural
classification system
 2.3. Phyletic or Evolutionary
classification system

• It is a classification that aims at reconstructing a sequence

starting with the most primitive character and ending with
the most advanced or derived character
• It ensures that each taxon recognized as a monophyletic
• i.e. has arisen by the diversification of a single ancestor
• According to phyletic classification system, decision as to
which list represents the primitive and which the advanced
state is made primarily by examining the fossil record to
discover which character states are nowadays more
common and which are less common than earlier in the
fossil record
 2.4. Phenetics classification
system

• This is a classification system developed based up on

numerous characters of equal weight and their comparison
is using computer program
• According to Harrison (1960), the word "Phenetic" is to
mean a relationship by overall similarity of all available
morphological characters
• Thus, Similarity/resemblance is determined based on a set
of phenotypic characteristics of organisms
• Do not consider ancestral relations of characters
• No evolutionary history is considered
• The following methods are used for determining the
similarity of the studied organisms
• Selection of taxa-called Operational Taxonomic Units(OTUs) for
study
• Maybe species, genera or families
• Selection of character states (minimum of 60 and 80-100 are
desirable for comparison)
• Description or measurement of character states
• Ranking of all OTUs into the categories of the taxonomic
hierarchy
 2.5. Phylogenetic classification
system

• Phylogenetic or cladistics classification system is the

concepts and methods of determining similarity by
constructing branching patterns of evolution
• Relationship among organisms are to be interpreted in terms
of recency of common ancestor
• The method works as follows:
• Select monophyletic taxa
• Select characters of evolutionary interest
• Describe and/or measure character states
• Determine homologies of characters and character
states
• Generate trees or cladograms
 Species A Species B Species C Species D Species E

Primitive Present Present Present Present Present

Character 1 Absent Present Present Present Present

Character 2 Absent Absent Present Present Present

Character 3 Absent Absent Absent Present Present

Character 4 Absent Absent Absent Absent Present

Cladogram
3. Domains of Life and the
Hierarchical System of Classification

• Linnaeus developed a hierarchical system of classification

• An arrangement of taxa into an ascending series of ever–
increasing inclusiveness forms is known as a hierarchical
system of classification
• In different levels of categories, each classifying group,
called taxon (pl. taxa) is subdivided into other groups
• The three domains are identified and organized based on
the difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes
(Domain Archae bacteria, Eubacteria and Eukarya)
• Prokaryotes are extremely diverse and different from
eukaryotes as proven by molecular biological studies
(RNA structure) with modern technology
• To understand the concepts of domains and kingdoms,
see the following diagrammatical representation of
mammal and insect and hierarchical classification
• In a hierarchical system, we start at the bottom with
individuals (species) and end up at the top with one all-
embracing taxon (Domain)
• Between the two, there are various taxa of organisms at
different levels of the hierarchy, each of which is
subordinate to one and one immediately higher taxon except
the lowest and the highest taxon
 The major
levels in the
hierarchy are
the following:
• Species are a series of recognizably similar individuals
distinct from other species; they are the fundamental bases
of the hierarchy of classification
• Related species are grouped in to one genus
• Related genera are grouped in to one family
• Related families are grouped in one order
• Similarly, related orders put in one class, classes in to
division (if plant) and in to phylum (if animal), and in to
kingdom and domain
 3.1. Concepts of the Kingdom

• In biology, Kingdom (Latin: regnum, pl. regna) is a

taxonomic rank, which is the highest rank or in the more
recent three-domain system, it is the second rank below the
Domain
• Kingdoms are divided into different types/approaches
• These different kingdom systems were developed based on
the diversity of organisms and to produce all-inclusive
classification system
The Two- Kingdom Concept/Approach

• The two kingdom concept existed before the 1950s

• This concept was classifying organisms based up on the
cell wall present versus absent
• Thus, Kingdom Plantae and Kingdom Animalia were
identified
• However, after the invention of the Electron Microscope,
some naturalists later questioned this approach
• Then the three kingdom systems were developed
Three-Kingdom Concept

• This kingdom concept/approach classifies all organisms in

to three Kingdoms, namely;
• Kingdom Plantae, Animalia and Protista
• Still there are other ungrouped organisms, which lead four
kingdom concepts
 The Four-Kingdom Concept

• The four Kingdoms were Kingdom Plantae, Animal,

Protista and Fungi
• Fungi are organisms that do have both plant and animal
characteristics
 The Five-Kingdom Concept

• After the invention of the Transmission Electron

Microscope (has a very high-resolution power- up to
100000x), some biologists were able to investigate the
composition of the cell
• The microscope revealed that there are differences in the
composition of the cells of few groups of organisms that
were considered members of the Kingdom Plantae, and
some members of the Kingdom Animalia
• Thus, they suggested the Five Kingdom approaches; which
are:
• Kingdom Monera, kingdom Fungi, kingdom Protista,
kingdom Plantae and kingdom Animalia
 The Six-Kingdom Concept

• This concept classifies first kingdom monera in to two

groups based on the nucleus and other organelles have or
lacking a membrane
• Thus, the six kingdom system was developed, and these
are:
• Kingdom Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi,
Plantae and Animalia
4. Binomial Nomenclature

• Nomenclature is the naming of organisms and the rules

governing the application of these names
• The rules of nomenclature begin from Linnaus
classification where he established the real beginning of a
perfect nomenclature of organisms
• Especially binomial nomenclature was practicable after
Linnaeus wrote the books “Species Plantarum and Genera
Plantarum”
• In nomenclatural system, each organism is designated by
two names, the first is the name of the genus; the second is
the specific epithet
• No two species can have the same name
• The names are always Latin (or Latinized) and the genus is
capitalized while species name is not
 4.1. The Purpose of giving names
to organisms

• Name is a conventional symbol or code that serves as a

means of reference and avoids the need for continuous use of
an inconvenient descriptive phrase
• Giving name for an organism is used for act as vehicle of
communication, to universalize the organism and to avoid
any names
• In the world, there are many languages, and many of them
use different alphabets
• Even within a single language the same name is often used in
different senses to denote different kinds of organisms, or
same organism is known by more than one name
• Thus, the Code of nomenclature tries to avoid the defects of
vernacular names and for this reason sets of rules have been
drawn up
• Scientific names are written in Latin form as well as in
Latin alphabet
• The scientific names of all living organisms are therefore
Latin or are treated as Latin even if they are derived from
other languages
 4.2. International Code
nomenclature

The code is a rulebook that contains

• Principles,
• Rules and
• Recommendations
• Form the basis of the system of nomenclature
• Provides stability in the naming and classification of
organisms
• Ensures that any given taxonomic grouping of a given rank
can have only one correct name, by which the species is
known
• Various international codes are established for different
groups of organisms
 4.2.1. International Code
Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)

• Botanical Nomenclature is the naming of groups of plants

(including algae, fungi and lichens)
• After groups of plants have been classified names must be
given to these groups so that communication about
particular units will be facilitated and continuous progress in
classification can be made
 4.2.2. International Code of
Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN)

• It is the system of naming animals, which applies to both

living and extinct animals
• The ICZN is responsible for producing the International
Code of Zoological Nomenclature
• A set of rules for the naming of animals and the resolution
of nomenclatural problems
• The primary objective of the Code is to promote the stability
of the names of taxa (groups of organisms) by providing
rules concerning name usage and the activity of naming new
taxa
 4.2.3. International Code of
Nomenclature of Bacteria

• The International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB)

governs the scientific names for Bacteria, including Archaea
bacteria
• It denotes the rules for naming taxa of bacteria, according to
their relative rank
• Originally the ICNB dealt with bacteria, and this kept
references to bacteria until these were replaced in 1975
• An early Code for the nomenclature of Bacteria was
approved at the 4th International Congress for
Microbiology in 1947
• These rules are maintained by the International Committee
on Systematics of Prokaryotes
 4.2.4. International Code of
Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants

• The need for a comprehensive set of practical, easily

understood and internationally acceptable regulations on the
naming of cultivated plants has long been evident
• The ICNCP regulates the names of cultigens
• Since cultivated plants are artificial populations maintained
and propagated by man, the botanical hierarchy of
infraspecific categories is hardly applicable to cultivated
plants
• It is largely replaced by a system based on the taxonomic
category cultivar
• Cultivar is any assemblage of cultivated plants which is
clearly distinguished by any characters and which retains its
distinguishing characters when reproduced sexually or
asexual
• It is internationally recognized term for category of distinct
cultivated sorts, which are usually called varieties
• Cultivar names are preceded by the abbreviation Cv. or
placed in single quotation marks and not Latinized names
 4.3. International Organizations &
Unions for the Stabilization of Changes

• At various times, taxonomists are concerned with the

classification of organisms and come together at
international meetings to discuss the overabundance of
problems associated with nomenclature
• As a result of such meetings, a set of International
Commissions or Committees have been created to lay down
sets of rules and recommendations covering the application
of nomenclatural procedures to their particular groups of
organisms
For ICBN: International Botanical Congress;
For ICZN: International Congress for Zoological
Nomenclature
For Cultivated plants: The International Commission for the
Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants
For Fungi: The International Commission for the Taxonomy
of Fungi (ICTF)
The codes for above groups of organisms may be modified
by a decision of the above bodies
 4.4. Names of taxa (the rank of the
genus and above)

• The family names consist of one term only and called

uninominal names
• They are plural nouns or adjectives used as nouns
• They are written with a capital initial letter
• E.g. Asteraceae, Lamiaceae
• Names of the genera are uninomial and singular nouns
• They are written with capital initial letter
• E.g. Hagenia, Datura, Withania and etc
• Names of the species consist of two terms, and called
binomial, binominal or binary names
• It contains the genus name in upper case followed by a
second term which is peculiar to the species in lower case
• The second term may be adjective or a noun, which is known
as specific epithet
 4.5. Operative Principles of
Nomenclature

The nomenclature code has set certain provisions, called

Operative Principles of Nomenclature
• Publication,
• Typification and
• Priority
 4.5.1. Publication

• Publication is the means by which scientific names enter to

the biological nomenclature system
• The two basic conditions must be fulfilled before a properly
formulated scientific name can have any legal status in
biological nomenclature
1. The name must be published in works that are printed in
permanent and made available to the interested public
2. A name must be accompanied by a written matter or a
reference to such description
 4.5.2. Typification
• The process of designating a nomenclatural type, or means by
which types are allocated to taxa
• A type is an element on which the description associated with
the original publication of a name was based
• Types are usually physical specimens that are kept in a
museum or herbarium research collection
• The scientific name of every taxon is almost always based on
one particular specimen or specimens
• The type of names of taxa above the Genus and below and
including the Family is a Genus
• The type of the names of taxa above Species and below and
including the Genus is a species
• The names of taxa below and including species is a specimen
or sometimes a description or an illustration of a specimen
• In nomenclature, there are different kinds of "Types"
Holotype: It is the sole element used or designated by the
author of a name as a type (original collection)
Isotype: The duplicates of a holotype
Syntype: Is any one or more elements used by the author who
did not designate a holotype
Lectotype: when holotype was not designated or missing an
element is selected subsequently from amongst syntypes to
serve as a type during publications
Neotype: It is an element selected to serve as a nomenclatural
type when through loss or destruction of the above "Types"
 4.5.3.Priority

• The principle of priority requires when two or more names

apply to the same taxon
• In this case, the name is given generally based up on by the
oldest one, which is validly published name
• However, one of the limitations of priority is the starting
point date, which is the date of publication of a work prior
to which no name is considered to have been made
available for zoological code and validly published names
for botanical code
• There are certain names that are not considered in the code
For example,
homonyms- names spelt in an identical manner but based on
different “types” of the organism (same name used for
different taxa)
superfluous- names that include the “type” of another name
when published
tautonyms- name of a species in which the second term exactly
repeats the generic names have no any legal status in the code
• However, tautonyms are allowed in zoological code for
example, Red fox (Vulpes vulpes)
• In nomenclature, when two or more names are applied to the
same taxon, it is known as synonyms
• There are two kinds of synonyms; nomenclatural and
taxonomic synonyms
• The first names are based on the same ‘‘type’’ of the
organism and called obligator homotypic synonyms
• Homotypic synonyms come about when a name is
nomenclaturally incorrect or sometimes when a species is
moved from one genus to another
• Taxonomic synonyms are based on different “type” of an
organism, and called heterotypic synonyms
• Heteroytpic synonyms refer to different types with which
different names are associated, but which the scientist
concerned considers to be the same taxon but different type
 4.6. Authorities and Their
Citations

• The scientific names of organisms are often written followed

by one or more personal names or the author name, who first
published the name in the way that satisfies the criteria of
valid publication or available names
• Sometimes it is abbreviated, example;
Rumex abyssinicus Jacq., Plantago lanceolata L.
• Sometimes, double citations are required
• A double citation indicates there has been a change in
taxonomic position or rank
• For example, when a taxon below the rank of genus is
transferred to another taxon, but also when a genus or taxon
of lower rank is altered in rank but retains its original epithet
• E.g. Carissa edulis Vahl.
• Later Linnaeus decided to place the specific epithet
"spinarum", and written as Carissa spinarum(Vahl.) L.