Punctuation in English

Rules and recommendations

By Alhemedi Mohammad
 Introduction
- In writing, we can use punctuation marks
to emphasize, clarify, what we mean.
- Meanwhile, in speaking, we can make a
pause, stop, change our tone of voice
- That's why in writing, we make use of
Punctuation marks as signals to our
readers.
1. The full stop……
• The full stop is used:
• a. at the end of a complete statement (or
utterance) which is neither an exclamation nor
a question.
- e.g. He saw a crew among the trees.
- He asked me if I had seen it.
- Yes. A crew.
1. The full stop.
• b. After abbreviations.
. B.A. ( Bachelor of Arts ).
. e.g. (for example ).
. N.B. ( Nota bene, note well ).
. Note It is often the practice to omit the full
stop if the last letter of the abbreviated word
is given:
. e.g. Mr.
Dr.
The full stop.
• The full stop is the most important of the
• punctuation marks.
• Its omission, when its use is undeniably
required,
- will confuse the reader;
- ideas will be mixed up and
- the meaning intended by the writer will
not be probably communicated to the
reader.
2. The comma,,,,,,
* A comma is a punctuation mark that indicates a
pause is needed in a sentence.
* It separates the structural elements of sentences
into manageable segments.
• Commas are both an aid to sense and to ease of
reading.
• They are sometimes used in long sentences to
break up words into sections where the sense
allows a pause to be taken. It is better to underuse
them than to overuse them.
2. The comma.
• Commas are frequently overused. It is as well
always consider the effect on the sense and
construction of a sentence that their inclusion
or omission would have.
• Consider the following:
• e.g. I saw my friend John.
I saw my friend, John.
2. The comma.
• The first sentence implies that I have several
friends, but the one that I saw was Tom. The
omission of the comma allows Tom' to define which
friend it was that I saw.
• The second sentence may imply that I have only
one friend and that his name happens to be Tom'.
The inclusion of the comma allows the word Tom'
merely to qualify the word friend. It might also
mean that the speaker is addressing Tom when he
or she says, "I saw my friend".
2. The comma.
• Conventional uses of the comma.
• To separate two descriptions, set side by side,
of the same object or person;
The second of the two descriptions adds to
the meaning of the first and is parallel to
it. (Technically, the second statement is
said to be'in apposition to' the first.)
• e.g. Mr Brown, the grocer, sells butter.
 Conventional uses of the comma.
• 2. To separate the items or elements in a list.
e.g. At the grocer's I bought some eggs, bread, sugar, tea
and biscuits.
• Note Some writers would not insert the comma
before the final and but others would argue that
because it separates 'tea' from 'biscuits' as
elements in a list it should be there. Look,
however, at the final coma in the following list,
where it is essential
e.g. For breakfast I ate some cereals, toast, and
eggs and bread.
• The final pair of items here (eggs and bread)
may be seen as a single element to have omitted
the comma after 'toast' would have obscured the
sense by running 'toast' and 'eggs and bread'
together.
 Conventional uses of the comma.
• 3. To mark off the name or title of a person
being addressed.
• e.g.
Mr Smith, what is the trouble ?
I'd much rather, James, you told me the
truth.
Doctor, I have had a pain in my back for
quite a time.
 Conventional uses of the comma.
4. Following introductory words which
introduce direct speech or a direct question.

e.g. He said, 'I know that I should not have

said that.‘

The policeman asked, 'why did you

hesitate?'
 Conventional uses of the comma.
5. To separate short clauses which list actions,
events, and so on.
e.g. The man rose, left the room, slammed
the door, and made his way into the street.
 Conventional uses of the comma
6. To indicate a statement interpolated
within a sentence. Commas here effectively
bracket off the interpolation.

e.g. It was obvious, all things considered,

that he had done the wrong thing.
 Conventional uses of the comma.
7. To separate, or mark off, a phrase which
stands apart from the rest of a sentence.

• e.g. The decision taken, there was no going

back.
 Conventional uses of the comma.
8. To indicate where the words have been
deliberately omitted but need to be
understood.

e.g. The professor could pursue his own

ideas; I, mine.
Conventional uses of the comma.
9. To mark off a series of statements in the
same sentence.

e.g. He knew what he had to do, where he

had to go, and when he should take the
next step.
 Conventional uses of the comma.
• The comma in a compound sentence is placed
before the coordinating conjunction.
• Andy built a sand castle, and Joe played with
his dog.
3. The semicolon;
• The semicolon marks off one part of sentence
from another much more sharply than a
comma.
• It is particularly useful to divide a long
sentence into self-contained sections. The
semicolon is used:
3. The semicolon
• To separate a series of complete statements
which, nevertheless, belong to a longer whole
statement.
• e.g. He was ill; he now knew it; he would go to
the doctor's.
• Note:
The semicolons here give to the three short
statements a dramatic note which would not be
present if the first were replaced by a comma and
the second by a conjunction, such as and; indeed,
to change the statement in this way would weaken
it so much that it would become almost
meaningless.
3. The semicolon;
• 2. To introduce a sharp contrast between
complete statements which are closely
related.
• e.g. He knew what he should do; yet he could
not do it.
He trusted the doctor; he distrusted
himself.
3. The semicolon;
• Note, The semicolon is particularly useful to make this
kind of contrast before liking words such as:

• therefore,
• otherwise,
• still,
• yet,
• for,
• nevertheless,
3. The semicolon.
• 3. To break up a long sentence which would
otherwise be overwhelmed by a confusion of
commas.
• e.g. He would do it, if he could do; for, after
all, he had the time.
The Colon:
• The colon is used:
1- To introduce a list which follows immediately.
e.g. He studied the use of the following
punctuation marks: full stops, semicolons,
colons, question marks, etc.
2- To introduce examples which illustrate or
expand an idea and which follow
immediately.
• e.g. He counted his treasures: gold, silver,
diamonds, and books.
The Colon:
3- To introduce a quotation which follows
immediately.
• e.g. Hamlet once contemplated his own death: "To
be or not to be...
4- To introduce an explanation which follows
immediately.
e.g. This is what to do: pour the yellow liquid
into the green one and then get out - fast.
The Colon:
5- To introduce a speech which follows immediately.
e.g. He rose to his feet, cleared his throat,
and began: 'Unaccustomed as I am to public
speaking, I should like to say ...
6- To divide two sharply contrasting statements.
• Note A semicolon sometimes has this function, too.
E.g. Speech is silver: silence is golden.
e.g. The river ran downhill: he made his way
slowly up the path.
5. The question mark???
• The question mark had its origin in an
awareness not of grammar but of rhetoric:
• It indicated where the voice was to turn
upward to indicate that a question was being
asked.
• The full stop which forms part of this,
punctuation mark shows that a statement
• ( in this case, a question) has come to an end.
5. The question mark
• The question mark is used:
1- To mark the end of a direct question.
e.g. Where did you go?
2- To show that statements within a given context are to
be taken as direct questions.
• e.g. Question marks are not used in
indirect questions ?
No, they are not.
He asked where you went ? You may well be
surprised.
6. The exclamation mark!!
• The exclamation marks, like the question
mark, is mainly a rhetorical sign.
• It shows where a statement is used as an
interjection or carries very strong emotion.
• The full stop which forms part of this
punctuation mark shows that a statement ( in
this case, an exclamation ) has come to an
end.
6. The exclamation mark.
• e.g. Good Gracious ! You must certainly not go
there !
• Oh dear ! I thought that you might say that.
• After this last sentence an exclamation is also
possible but, if it is added, it will inject
strong emotion into the utterance.
• This is one of the occasions in the use of
punctuation where a sign does not merely follow
the sense and structure but can determine
meaning.
• The context will usually make it clear when the
emotion in a statement is strong enough to
warrant the use of an exclamation mark.
7. The apostrophe’’’’’
• The apostrophe is one of the most interesting
punctuation marks in English but it is very often
misused.
• Misunderstandings abound and it is not
uncommon to find on notices displayed in shops
simple plurals of nouns that are wrongly given an
apostrophe -s
• e.g. Sign is men's hairdresser's No boy's today.
7. The apostrophe.
• The apostrophe is used
• (i) To denote the possessive form of the noun.
• All nouns, singular and plural, take an
apostrophe -s to show the possessive case.
• e.g. The boy's book.
The men's hats.
7. The apostrophe.
• There are two main groups of exceptions
which merely take an apostrophe without the
final -s
• e.g. (a) Plural nouns which already end in -s
• The boys' book.
• (b) Singular nouns that already contain so
many
's' sounds (sibilants) that the addition of a
further -s would be ugly.
7. The apostrophe.
• (ii) To mark the omission of a letter or group
of letters in a word.
• e.g. don't ( do not ). Shan't (Shall not).
• (iii) To form the plurals of letter, figure, and
contractions consisting of initial letters.
• e.g. Dot your i's and cross your t's.
There are three 4's in twelve.
7. The apostrophe.
• The use of the apostrophe in such cases is
often
confusing.
• It is now the convention to omit the use of
the
apostrophe here but to italicize single letters
before adding the final -s es, gs, but 4s, the
1930s, M.P.s and so on.
7. Parentheses (Brackets and the double
dash).
• Most frequently brackets are used to mark off
within a sentence, a word, comment,
explanation or
statement without which the sentence would
otherwise be grammatically complete.
• It should be possible to take out the brackets
and what they contain and then read the
sentences
without feeling that it is incomplete.
7. Parentheses (Brackets and the double
dash).
• Sometimes, instead of brackets two dashes are
used what is placed between the dashes will,
however, remain an interpolation.
• If there is a distinction to be made between the
use of brackets and the use of dashes it is
probably that dashes mark off the interpolation
less sharply from the rest of the sentence than
brackets.
7. Parentheses (Brackets and the double
dash).
• Compare, for example, the following
• He managed (such was his skill) to build his own
house.
• He managed -such was his skill- to build his own
house.
• He had enough money ( he was rich ) to buy the
car.
• He had enough money - he was rich - to buy the
car.
7. Parentheses (Brackets and the double
dash).
• Brackets are also used to add information, to
amplify a comment without interrupting its
general flow.
• e.g. They were all there ( John, Mary, Tom, and
Sarah ) and the party was complete.
• (iii) Brackets are used, too, to provide a
comment or a gloss on a statement what is
contained within the brackets should be taken as
an 'aside' when they are used in this way. It is
often effective to use brackets like this to
convey humour, satire, or irony.
• She thought she was beautiful. (It was a pity
about her squint.)
• He said he needed five pounds. (That's what he
said last time.)
THANKS