MEMORY AND STORAGE

1.PRIMARY STORAGE

2.READ –ONLY MEMORY

3.RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY

4.VIRTUAL MEMORY

5.SECONDARY STORAGE

6.COMMON TYPES OF SECONDARY STORAGE

7.SUITABLE STORAGE DEVICES AND STORAGE MEDIA

8.UNITS OF DATA

9.DATA CAPACITY

10.BINARY AND DENARY

11.BINARY ADDITION

12.HEXADECIMAL

13.BINARY SHIFTS

14.CHARACTERS

15.IMAGES

16.SOUND

17.COMPRESSION
 • Memory is the component of the computer that holds
data, programs and instructions that are currently in
use.
• Also known as main area where computer data etc.
are stored.
• The need of primary storage:
• It is built inside the computer therefore data can be
1.PRIMARY read from and written extremely quick
STORAGE • This gives processor fast access to the data and
instructions that the primary memory holds
• There are two types of primary memory
• 1. RAM 2.ROM
• Primary memory is comparatively limited in size
especially when compared to secondary storage.
• In modern pc primary storage is generally around
8GB in size.
 Is non volatile meaning memory keeps content even if
pc is shut down
Is a type of primary memory
Can be read from but not written
This makes ROM ideal for storing data and instructions

2.ROM that are needed for computer to run

These instructions are usually programmed by the
(READ manufacturer and cannot be overwritten.
ONLY The BIOS (basic input output system) is an example of
MEMORY) a program that is stored in ROM. The BIOS runs as
soon as the computer is switched on.
It checks that the hard ware is functioning correctly
then runs a second program known as the boot up or
bootstrap program that loads the computer operating
system from the hard drive into RAM. The BIOS is
always needed so its stored in ROM .
• Is volatile mean contents are lost once computer is turned off.
• Type of memory storage
• Given that name as data can be stored and accessed from
any location within the memory

• Can be read from and written

• Uses data and instructions that are currently in use
• In a modern computer RAM is used to hold the operating
3.RAM
system and any open documents and programs that are (RANDOM
running
ACCESS
• Contents can be changed in RAM simply by overwriting them
with another data or instruction . E.g. a user might close one MEMORY)
document and open a second or run a different program

• Can be upgraded easily unlike other types of primary memory

• The more RAM a computer has the more data and programs it
can hold simultaneously.
 4.VIRTUAL MEMORY
• Use of secondary storage as additional primary storage
• It is used when a computer runs out of RAM
• When RAM runs out due to extra number of running programs the computers secondary storage such as hard
drive can be used to store data temporarily.
• Virtual memory enables data that is in RAM and not currently being used to be transferred to the hard disk . This
frees up space in ram for other programs and data . When data on the hard disk is needed again, any other
unusual data is transferred to the hard disk before original data is transferred back to RAM. This process is
known as swapping
• Using virtual memory makes computer runs slower as the processor has to wait while data is swapped between
hard disk and RAM.
• As secondary storage devices have slower access times than RAM the computers processing performance can
be severely impaired
• Processing performance can be improved by increasing the size of RAM , thereby reducing the need for virtual
memory.
 5.SECONDARY STORAGE
• It is non volatile unlike primary memory RAM so is used for later store of data use.
• Long term storage
• It is used to keep programs and data indefinitely
• Without it all programs and data would be lost the moment the computer is switched
off.
• There are many forms of secondary storage and each form of secondary storage
devices has its own characteristics. Because all devices are different, some are more
suited to certain applications than others.
• For e.g. Hard drives has high capacity and reasonable access speed making it suitable
for every day storage of programs and data
• A USB stick is smaller in capacity but extremely fast and portable making it suitable for
transferring files between computers.
• Not all computers require secondary storage , embedded computers such as those
found in a digital watch or central heating system , do not need to store data when the
power is turned off. The instructions needed to run them are stored in ROM and any
user data is held in RAM.
6.COMMON TYPES OF SECONDARY
STORAGE
• Separated into three types
• 1.magnetic: such as hard drives use magnetic fields to
magnetise tiny individual sections of a metal spinning disk.
Each tiny section represents one bit. A magnetised section
represents a binary 1 and a demagnetised section represents
a binary 0 . These sections are so tiny that a disk can contain
terabytes of data. As the disk is spinning a read/write head
moves across it surface to write data. The head magnetise or
demagnetises a section of the disk that is spinning under it. To
read, the head makes a note of whether the section is
magnetised or not. They are fairly cheap, high in capacity and
durable however they are susceptible to damage if dropped .
They are also vulnerable to magnetic fields. A strong magnet
• 2. Optical devices: optical devices use a laser to scan the
surface area of a spinning disc made from metal and
plastic .The Disc surface is divided into tracks with each track
containing many flat areas and hollow . The flat areas are
known as land and hollow as pits. When the laser shines on the
disc surface land reflects the light back where as the pits
scatter the laser beam. A sensor looks for the reflected light .
The reflected light represents a binary 1 and no reflection
represent a binary 0 . Optical media also comes in different
types
Rom: media have data pre written .Data cannot be overwritten.
Music, films , software and games are often distributed this way.
R: media are blank. Optical devices writes data on them by
shining a laser into the disc. The laser burns pits to represent 0 .
• 3.solid state devices: non volatile. RAM to store data
indefinitely . Tend to have much faster access times than other
types of devices because they have no moving parts. Are more
durable. Since this type of memory is more expensive , solid
state devices tend to be smaller in capacity. For e.g. a solid
state devices with 256 GB might be of a similar cost to a hard
disk with one tera byte capacity . It requires a little power.
Making them ideal for portable devices where battery life is a
big consideration. They are also portable due to Their small
size and durability.
 • We should consider through following:

• Cost: what is cost per gigabyte

• Capacity: how much data can the medium hold

•
7.SUITABLE Speed across medium: how quickly can data be
transferred to and from medium

STORAGE • Portability: how portable is the medium

DEVICES AND • Durability: how robust is the medium and how

robust will it need to be
STORAGE MEDIA • Reliability: how resilient and long lasting is the
FOR A GIVEN medium.

APPLICATION • Once these factors are taken into consideration and

appropriate choice can be made.

• In some cases more than one type of secondary

storage may be suitable. E.g. A usb stick or a CD –
RW may be used to transfer files or to back up data.
 8.UNITS OF DATA
Size Unit
4 bits 1 nibble
8 bits 1 byte (B)
1,000 bytes (1,000 B) 1 kilobyte (KB)
1,000 kilobytes (1,000 KB) 1 megabyte (MB)
1,000 megabytes (1,000 MB) 1 gigabyte (GB)
1,000 gigabytes (1,000 GB) 1 terabyte (TB)
1,000 terabytes (1,000 TB) 1 petabyte (PB)
ANALOGUE DATA: IS A REAL LIFE SIGNAL THAT CAN VARY GREATLY IN
VALUES. EXAMPLES INCLUDE:
SOUND WAVES, PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE
DIGITAL DATA: IS BINARY DATA WHICH REPRESENTS ANALOGUE DATA.
COMPUTERS WORK WITH DIGITAL DATA. ANALOGUE DATA MUST BE
CONVERTED TO DIGITAL BEFORE A COMPUTER CAN USE IT. A DEVICE
KNOWN AS AN ANALOGUE TO DIGITAL CONVERTER IS USED TO
GENERATE DIGITAL DATA FROM ANALOGUE SIGNALS. IN THE SAME WAY
A DIGITAL SIGNAL CAN BE CONVERTED BACK TO AN ANALOGUE SIGNAL
USING DIGITAL TO ANALOGUE CONVERTOR.
 Quantity a 1
gigabyte USB
File type Typical size
memory stick
could hold
1 gigabyte =
1,000 megabytes,
1000 megabytes
Word processed = 1,000,000
50 kilobytes
document kilobytes,
9.DATA 1,000,000 / 50 =
20,000 word
processed files
CAPACITY 1 gigabyte =
1,000 megabytes,
1000 megabytes
= 1,000,000
Image file 100 kilobytes
kilobytes,
1,000,000 / 100 =
10,000 image
files
1 gigabyte =
1,000 megabytes,
Video file 100 megabytes
1,000 / 100 = 10
10. DENARY
AND BINARY
11. ADDING BINARY
12.
HEXADECI
MAL
13. BINARY SHIFTS

MULTIPLICATION DIVISION
• Moves to the left • Move to the right
• To multiply by 2 move I to • To divide by 2 move I to the
the left by 4 than 2 to the right by 4 then 2 to the right
left if 8 three to the left and if 8 three to the right and so
so on on
• If answer in decimal we
discard it.
 14.CHARACTERS
COMPUTERS USE BINARY TO STORE DATA SO EACH CHARACTER IS STORED IN
THE FORM OF BINARY. ALL CHARACTERS A COMPUTER USES ARE CALLED
CHARACTER SET.
TWO STANDARD CHARACTER SETS ARE ASCII AND UNICODE
AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR INFORMATION CHANGE OR ASCII HAS 128
CHARACTERS, 7 BITS , TAKES LESS STORAGE SPACE .
UNICODE IS AN IMPROVED VERSION AS ASCII WOULDN’T COVER ALL
CHARACTERS AND HAS A WIDER RANGE OVER 65 000 AND A 16 BIT PATTERN
HOWEVER TAKES UP MORE SPACE WHICH LEADS TO EXTRA USAGE OF DATA
NOT NEEDED AND COULD BE USED ONLY FOR A WIDER RANGE LIKE TO USE
CHARACTERS SET INCLUDING CHINESE FRENCH ETC.
 Digital images are made up of pixels
• Each pixel is represented by a binary number
• Colour depth is a range of colours available therefore more complicated binary
number each pixel
• The more the pixel the more the possible colours
• The more colour depth the larger the image will be.
• Image size is number of pixels contained
• Image file size can be estimated by multiplying image height size , width size and
colour depth .
• Resolution is how tightly packed the pixels are and how many pixels used
• Metadata
15. IMAGES • Files contain extra data called metadata. Metadata includes data about the file
itself, such as:
• file type
• date created
• author
• An image file also includes metadata about the image data itself, such as:
• the height and width of the image - this defines how many rows and columns the
pixels are to be arranged in
• the resolution
• the colour depth
• Without this metadata, the image data would not be correctly interpreted, meaning
the image could not be correctly displayed.
computers work in binary. All data must be converted into binary in order for a computer to
process it. Sound is no exception. To do this, sound is captured - usually by a microphone - and
then converted into a digital signal. An analogue-to-digital converter will capture a sound wave at
regular time intervals. This recording is known as a sample

• Sample rate is the number of samples recorded in any given period of time. The higher the
sample rate, the closer the recorded signal is to the original. Sample rate is measured in hertz

• the higher the sample rate, the larger the resulting file. As a result, sound files are often a
compromise between quality and size of file. An audio file is usually recorded at 44.1 kilohertz.
This is high enough for good sound quality while keeping file size down to sensible levels.

• Bit depth

• Bit depth refers to the number of bits used to record each sample. Just as with images, the
higher the bit depth, the more accurately a sound can be recorded, but the larger the file size.
Typical bit depths are 16 bit and 24 bit.
16.SOUND
• Bit rate

• Bit rate is simply a measure of how much data is processed for each second of sound. Bit rate
is calculated by:

• Sample rate × duration(s) x bit depth

• As with sample rate, the higher the bit rate, the better quality of the recorded sound.

• Key fact

• Bit depth refers to the number of bits used to record each sample. Bit rate is a measure of how
much data is processed for each second of sound.

• Samples are taken multiple times to improve accuracy as sound can not
be fully accurate but a close estimation when converted.
17.COMPRESSION
• Modern computers often generate files of very large sizes. For example, audio files often run to megabytes, while high definition
video can be gigabytes in size. Such files require lots of storage space, and, because of their size, are difficult to transmit. These
problems can be overcome by using compression.

• There are two types of compression that can be applied to files:

• lossy compression

• lossless compression
• Lossy compression

• With lossy compression, some data is removed and discarded, thereby reducing the overall amount of data and the size of the file.

• An image can be compressed by reducing its colour depth. This reduces the range of colours that the image contains. In practice this results in an averaging of shades of
colours. For example, a very light shade of green could be averaged with a not so light shade - the very light shade might be discarded, and the pixels affected by it re-
coloured with the darker shade.

• Similarly, an audio file can be compressed by reducing the bit depth of the samples. MP3 is a lossy audio file format.

• Various lossy standards exist:

• the JPEG file format works on this principle, which is why JPEG files tend to be smaller in size

• the MPEG file format compresses audio and video, making it more suitable for streaming media

• >MP3 is a lossy format for audio, including music

• Lossless compression

• There are some files that we would not want to lose data from. For example:

• text files

• spreadsheets

• financial records

• emails

• With lossless compression, files are reduced in size without the loss of data. However, lossless compression does not usually achieve the same file size reduction as lossy
compression.

• Various lossless standards exist: