GRADE 11 NETWORKS

AND DATA
COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING AND DATA
COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION
 A computer network forms whenever two (2) or more
computers are interconnected together with other related
accessories to work together.
DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN NETWORKING
1. COMPUTER NETWORK
 A collection of independent entities that are arranged in such a
manner as to exchange data, information or resources.
 A collection of computers linked together using transmission
media for the purpose of communication and resource sharing.
2. TRANSMISSION MEDIA

•Transmission media refers to any physical or non-
physical link between two or more computers and in which
a signal can be made to flow from source to destination.
•Some of the shared resources include:
 a) Application programs.
 b) Printers.
 c) Fax machines.
 d) Modems.
 e) Storage devices.
3. DATA COMMUNICATION
 Itis the process of transmitting data signal from one
point to another through the network.
 Itis the movement of data by telecommunication
systems.

SENDER RECEIVE
TERMS USED IN DATA COMMUNICATION
1. Data signal.
2. Signal modulation and demodulation.
3. Multiplexing.
4. Bandwidth.
5. Base band.
6. Broad band transmission.
7. Attenuation.
1. DATA SIGNAL
 Computers communicate by transferring data
signals between themselves.
 Refers to a voltage level in the circuit which represents
the flow of data.
 There are two types of data signals:
 a) Analog signal: data made up of continuous varying
wave form similar to voice or sound wave.
 b) Digital signal: data made up non-continuous discrete
signal.
2. SIGNAL MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

 Process of converting data signals to a form that is

suitable for transmission over a transmission medium.
 a) Modulation: converting digital data signals into
analog data signals.
 b) Demodulation: converting digital data by
superimposing it on analog carrier signal which can
be transmitted over analog telephone lines.
3. MULTIPLEXING
 Process of sending multiple data signals over the same
medium i.e., a wire conductor can be made to carry
several data signals either simultaneously or at
different times.
 Demultiplexing is the process of separating the
multiplexed signals at the receiving end.
 The different data signals are made to have different
frequencies on the cable hence they do not interfere
with one another.
 The different frequencies cause what is called
different logical channels in the medium.
 DEMULTPLEXE
MULTIPLEXER
MULTIPLEXED TO
TO
LINE COMPUTERS
COMPUTERS

R
A MULTIPLEXED
LINK
4. BAND WIDTH
 The maximum amount of data that a transmission medium
can carry at any one time. For example, a certain cable
may have a bandwidth of 100 Mbps (Megabits per
second).
5. BASE BAND SIGNAL
 A signalthat is generated and applied to the
transmission medium directly without modulation.
 The signal takes the form of voltages of different
agnitudes applied to the medium.
6. BROAD BAND TRANSMISSION
 This is where an analog signal is sent over the transmission medium using
a particular frequency.
 Several data signals can be sent simultaneously through the same medium
but at different frequencies.

7. ATTENUATION
a) This is the loss of signal strength (decrease in magnitude and energy)
as a signal progressively moves along a transmission medium.
 b) If the signal is not boosted, it will totally be lost along the way and
may never reach the destination.
 c) This condition is usually corrected by placing signal amplifiers also
called repeater stations along the medium at appropriate distances in
order to receive the weak signal, clean it, amplify it then retransmit it.
MODES OF DATA COMMUNICATION
 1. Simplex.
 2. Half duplex.
 3. Full duplex.

1. SIMPLEX
 Communication is only in one direction.
 They are only meant to send or receive messages.
 Example
 a) Radio broadcast – the listener cannot communicate back
through the radio receiver.
 b) Television broadcast.
 c) Transmission from a computer to a line printer.
 SIMPLEX
SENDER RECEIVE
2. HALF DUPLEX
 Communication takes place in both directions but
one direction at a time.
 Two interconnected devices exchange data
alternately where the devices switch between send
and receive modes after each transmission.

Sender HALF DUPLEX Receive

 Example
 1. Walkie talkies
 2. Fax machines.
 3. Modems.

3. FULL DUPLEX
 Occurs in both directions simultaneously

SENDER Receive
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

 1. Local Area Networks (LAN) CLASSICFIED

 2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) ACCORDING SIZE
 3. Wide Area Network (WAN)

1. LOCAL AREA NETWORK

 A communication network that spans a relatively small geographical area like
in one building or a school.
 LANs are characterized by:
 a) Limited geographical area.
 b) High data transmission rates.
 c) Low-cost transmission
 d) Low intra-office traffic.
 LANs allow information and computer resources to be shared by many
users e.g.,
 a) Mass storage devices.
 b) Processors.
 c) Printers.
 d) Plotters.
 e) Software.
 LANs are also characterized by the following components:
 a) Server.
 b) Work stations.
 c) Network interface cards (NIC)
 d) Network transmission cables.
 e) Network operating systems.
 f) Network accessories.
A. SERVER
 A computer dedicated to servicing requests for resources from other
computers (workstations) on a network.
 The server provides services to LAN users.
B. WORK STATIONS
 Any other computer connected to a network and can share resources with
any other devices on the network.
2. METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)
 Type of a network which covers a geographical extended fashion area
like a town or city (approximately a radius of 5 – 50 km).
 The MAN infrastructure may be owned by a single company that has
offices across a metropolitan area.
 A MAN therefore is made up of many LANs in a metropolitan area.
3. WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
 Also known as Long Haul Network (LHN).
 It is a type of a network that covers a large geographical area such as a country, a
continent or the whole world.
 It consists of many LANs and Mans connected to form one large network such as
the Internet.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WANs
 a) Unlimited geographical area.
 b) Low data transmission rates.
 c) High transmission link costs.
 d) long distance transmission.
 e) High degree of vender independence.
 f) Costly to install and maintain.
 PURPOSE AND LIMITATIONS OF NETWORKING
 These are the reasons for setting up computer networks, together
with the challenges associated with the implementation of the
computer networks.
 PURPOSE OF NETWORKING
 1. Resource sharing
 2. Remote communication.
 3. Distributed processing facilities.
 4. Cost effectiveness.
 5. Reliability.
1. Resource sharing
 Resource refers to data/information, files, printers, modems, communication links,
storage devices, fax machines, application programs etc.
 As long as computers are connected, they can share their files, exchange mail, send
faxes from any point on the network.
 Users do not need to transfer files via removable storage but would send the work to
a network printer.
 The centralized access to data and information leads to less waste of time and hence
greater productivity.
 In most network arrangements, the shared resources may be attached to a
network server.
 The clients/workstations then send their requests to the server.
 The network server runs a special program (server software) which controls
computers on the network and listen to client requests to service them over
the network. – Illustration Page 6
2. Remote communication
 Refers to the transmission of data signals between the communicating
devices located at different geographical locations.
 A remote client (a computer that accesses resources) from a remote
host (the computer being accessed) provides remote communication
mostly by use of wireless transmission media such as radio waves,
microwaves and satellites.
 It is through remote communication that people can be able to share
ideas and pass messages over the Internet.
 Remote communication thus eliminates the need of people to
travel/roam for long distances by giving them freedom to the network
which translates to more productivity.
3. Distributed processing facilities
 Refers to the act of running the same programs or databases on
different computers which are on the same network.
 Computers can do processing at their own dispersed locations or
departments and can share programs, data and other resources with
each other.
 It simplifies flow of information and saves time and resources.
Advantages of distributed data processing:
 a) The failure of the central computer does not affect the operations
of the other terminals.
 b) Processing load is shared equally hence no time wastage.
4. Cost effectiveness
 Although the initial cost and laying down of network components
may be expensive, the savings experienced and the value added to
service delivery make them a ready choice for enterprising managers.
 The network greatly increases the efficient use of scarce resources.
 Networks have also enhanced daily communication by providing a
paperless communication environment.
 Users can send electronic messages and mail to each other instead
of having to bear the cost of stamp duty or delivery charges.
 Company executives may not need to travel across continents to hold
meetings. They can hold video conferences and save on traveling
expenses.
5. Reliability
 Data can be transferred with minimum error from source to
destination.
 Users can still access data and information from the other computers
on the network in case one breaks down.
LIMITATIONS OF NETWORKING
 1. Security issues.
 2. High initial cost.
 3. Moral and cultural effects.
 4. Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking.
 5. Over-reliance on networks.
1. Security issues

 Data and information is prone to more illegal

access threats because there can be data access and
sharing from various points.
 Data can also be tapped or listened to by
unauthorized parties, during transmission of data
from source to destination.
 One of the common methods of data protection in
a networked environment is encryptioning.
2. High initial cost

 Networking is an expensive venture for an

organization.
 It is expensive to acquire networking equipment.
 It is expensive to train network administrators,
users and general maintenance of networks.
 The initial cost of buying network hardware and
software is very high.
3. Moral and cultural effects

 The internet has chat rooms and messaging

services that may enable under age children to
meet peers and adults on the net, some of whom
may have bad intentions.
 Access to pornography and other negative
materials has also led to moral decay, leading to
the fight against social problems like HIV/AIDS,
bad sexual behavior, drugs and substance abuse
more complicated.
4. Spread of terrorism and drug trafficking

 The internet provides a rich recruitment ground

for all types of illegal activities such as terrorism
and drug trafficking.
 The easy flow of information from one place to
another keeps even those who are on the wrong
side of the communicating easily.
 Terrorists
and drug traffickers use information
networks for their business communications
5. Over-reliance on networks
 The danger of network failure can paralyze the operations of
an organization besides damaging files.
 If by any chance the network fails, many systems in
organizations can be brought to a halt.
ELEMENTS OF NETWORKING
A computer network is made up of several standard elements
(components) which can be classified into three (3) major
categories:
 1. Data communication media.
 2. Communication devices.
 3. Networking software.
 4. Data signal.
1. DATA COMMUNICATION MEDIA
 A pathway used for carrying data and information from one point to
another.
 The communication medium dictates the type of signals that will be
used to transmit a message.
 Transmission media is the physical path (bounded) and non-physical
path (unbounded) between the transmitter and the receiver.
 The communication media/channels/pathways can be divided into
two:
 a) Communication using cables (bounded media).
 b) Wireless communications (unbounded media).
A. COMMUNICATION USING CABLES (BOUNDED
MEDIA)
 Communication signals are transmitted from the source to the
destination through a restricted pathway such as a cable.
 Any radiation from the guided medium is regarded as signal loss.
 The most common types of bounded transmission media are:
 Two wire open line cables.
 Twisted pair cables.
 iii) Coaxial cables.
 iv) Fibre optic cables
I) TWO WIRE OPEN LINES CABLES:
 Made up of two parallel copper wires separated by a plastic
insulator.
 Used in telecommunication network to transmit voice signal.
 Although the plastic insulator is meant to reduce inter-line
interference called crosstalk, their linear nature allows an
electromagnetic field to build around them during heavy data
transmission which may cause interference to the signal.
 The wires also capture environmental frequencies e.g., radio
waves hence causing noise in the transmission channel.
 Noise refers to random unwanted signals picked up by the channel.
 INSULATOR

WIRE CONDUCTOR

TWO WIRE OPEN LINES CABLES

 The most significant impairments during data
transmissions are:
 a) Attenuation: the loss of signal strength (amplitude) as is travels along
the cable.
 b) Cross talk: caused by signal coupling between the different cable
pairs contained within a multipair cable bundle i.e., interline
interference.
 c) Noise: Random unwanted signals picked up by the channel, caused
by either cross talk or externally included impulses e.g., from sources
like motors, switching equipment, high current equipment etc.
 d) Impendence: this is the resistance offered by the cable to the signal.
II) TWISTED PAIR CABLES
 Made up of two solid copper wire strands wound around each other in a
double helix manner to reduce the development of an electromagnetic
field around the two wires as they transmit data.
 Mostly used to transmit both voice and data signals.
The two common types of twisted pair cables are:
a) The unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
b) Shielded twisted pair (STP)
a) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
a) They do not have a shield that prevents electromagnetic interference
(EMI) also called (electric noise” from the environment like lightening
sparks, radio signals and radiations from spark plugs in motor vehicles.
b) They are therefore not suitable for environments that are electrically
“noisy”.
 b) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
 Similar to unshielded twisted pair except that a
braided shield is wrapped around the wires to protect
(shield) them from noise.
 The shielding may be a metallic foil or copper braid.
 Shielding minimizes electromagnetic interference (EMI)
or radio frequency interference.
 Twisted pair cables are categorized into 5 groups
according to the type of data transmitted and maximum
rate of transmission as shown below:
Category Suitable for Speed
transmittin (max. limit)
g
1 Voice Less than 1 Mbps

2 Data 1 Mbps

3 Data 16 Mbps

4 Data 20 Mbps

5 Data 100 Mbps

KEY:
 Mbps – Megabits per second.
 Today’s networks are approaching speeds of Gigabits per second.
 Most organizations today use category 5 twisted pair cables to set
up their local area network.
Advantages of twisted pair cables:
 a) They can support high data rates (bandwidth) of up to 100
Mbps.
 b) Telephone systems use UTP which is present in most
buildings hence it is easier to set up a network media
because connection is already available.
 c) Installation equipment is cheap and readily available.
  d) It is cheap because of mass production for telephone use.
Disadvantages of twisted pair cabling
 a) Suffers high attenuation – a repeater is needed to amplify the signal.
 b) It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping (tapping
into communication channels to get information).

 c) It has low data transmission rates as compared to other cables.
III) COAXIAL CABLES
 Specially wrapped and insulated cables that are able to transmit data at
very high rate.
 They consist of central copper wire covered with a dielectric material
(insulator).
 The dielectric material is then surrounded by a hollow mesh conductor
which is covered by a shield making the cable more resistant to
electromagnetic interference than the twisted pair cable.
 The signal is transmitted by inner copper wire and is electrically
shielded by the other copper sleeve.
 The braid (mesh conductor) is made up of copper or
aluminum and serves as the ground for the carrier wire.
 Together with the insulation and any foil shield, the
braid shield protects the carrier wire from radio
frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic
interference (EMI).
 Although the cable has better protection against electrical
interference than the TCP, they have moderate protection
against magnetic interference.
 The diameter of the centre core or conductor determines the
attenuation rate i.e., the thinner the core, the higher the
attenuation rate.
 Data is carried on this cable using direct current (DC).
 Coaxial cables have bandwidths of up to 1Gbps, hence they
are installed in a network to form the network backbone (a
link that connects two or more separate local area networks).
Types of coaxial cables:
 Thin coaxial cable (Thinnet)
 Has one dielectric insulator.
 b) Thick coaxial cable (Thicknet)
 Has two dielectric insulators around the core and is thicker
than the thinnet.
Advantages of coaxial cables
 1. They are very stable even under high load.
 2. Have a large bandwidth – up to 1Gbps compared to
twisted pair.
 3. Can carry voice, data and video signal simultaneously.
 4. More resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference
than twisted pair cables.
 6. Many are packaged in bundles that can handle 15000
telephone calls simultaneously.
 7. Have a higher immunity to noise distortion and data
loss.
Disadvantages of coaxial cables
 1. Thick coaxial cables are hard to work with.
 2. They are relatively expensive to buy and to install as compared to
twisted pairs especially for longer distance transmission.
 3. They are vulnerable to tapping.
 4. Attenuation for long distance transmission.
IV) FIBRE OPTIC CABLES
 Utilize light (optic) to transmit data from one pint to another on the
network.
 Electrical signals from the source are converted to light signals, and then
propagated along the fibre optic cable.
Types of fibre optic cables
a) Single mode fibre.
b) Multimode fibre.
a) Single mode fibre
 Has a very narrow center core.
 Light in the cable can only take one path through it.
 Has a low attenuation rate.
 Preferred for long distance transmission.
 Has a bandwidth of 50 Gbps which is higher than that of the
twisted pair’s 100 Mbps.
 It is very expensive.
 Requires very careful handling during installation.
b) Multimode fibre cable  Has a thicker core.
 Allows several light rays to be fed in the cable at an angle.
 Distortion of signals is possible because of multiple light signals
navigating the cable at the same time. Have a high attenuation rate.
 Usually used for shorter distances than single mode.
 Light signal travels through the core through a process referred to as
total internal reflection.
 The process that causes total internal reflection is called refraction.
 Refraction is the bending of light when it crosses the boundary of
two mediums that have different density.
 When light signal is inserted into the cable, it rises to cross from the
core to the cladding.
 The light is bent back into the core hence propagates along the
length of the cable as shown below:

Light rays

Multimode fibre cladding

The fibre optic cable is made up of:
 a) The Core.
 b) Cladding.
 c) Buffer
 d) Strength member.

 e) Jacket.
a) The core:
 The central part of the cable made of a hollow transparent plastic glass.

b) Cladding:
 a single protective layer surrounding the core. It has light bending characteristics.
 When light tries to travel from the core to the cladding, it is redirected back to the
core.
c) Buffer:
 Surrounds the cladding and its main function is to strengthen the cable.

d) Jacket:
 It is the outer covering of the cable.
Advantages and features of fibre optic cables
 1. Offer high quality transmission of signals.
 2. Light weight – a normal glass fibre is the size of a human
hair.
 3. Can transmit voice, data and video signals simultaneously.
 4. Have a large bandwidth (up to 1Gbps).
 5. Low cross talk.
 6. Immune to interference and eavesdropping.
 7. More resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference.
 8. Long distance can be covered because they have low
attenuation.
 Can be used in hazardous places – highly flammable,
because they do not generate electrical signals.
 10. Can withstand extreme temperatures – up to 1000° C.
Disadvantages of fibre optic
 1. Connectivity devices and the media are
expensive.
 2. Installation is difficult because the cable needs
careful handling.
 3. Relatively complex to configure.
 4. A broken cable is difficult and expensive to
repair.
 5. Expensive for shorter distances.
 6. Prone to water seepage and freezing.
B. WIRELESS COMMUNICATION (UNBOUNDED MEDIA)
 Type of media used to transmit data from one point to another without using
physical connections.
 A transmitting antenna and receiver aerial are used to facilitate the
communication.
Examples of wireless transmission media:
i) Microwaves.
 ii) Satellite.
 iii) Radio waves.
 iv) Infrared transmission.
 v) Bluetooth technology.

 The transmission media above use different frequencies of the electromagnetic
spectrum as shown below.
I) MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION
 A microwave is extremely high frequency (communication beam)
that is transmitted over direct line of sight path.
 The method uses very high frequency radio signals to transmit data
through space.
 The electromagnetic wave cannot pass obstacles and geographical
barriers such as mountains.
 Due to their small wavelength, they easily release their energy in
water as heat hence they are also used in making microwave ovens
used in domestic kitchen appliances.
 In networking, microwaves are suitable for point-to-point
transmissions.
 A signal is directed thorough a focused beam from transmitter to the
receiver station.
II) SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
 A satellite is a microwave relay station.
 The microwave stations have parabolic dishes with an antenna fixed on
them in order to focus a narrow beam towards the satellite inspace.
Main Components of a satellite transmission system
1. Transmitter earth station:
 Sets up an uplink to the satellite in order to transmit data.
 The uplink has a unique frequency.

2. A satellite:
 Launched somewhere in an orbit that receives, amplifies and retransmits
the signal to a receiving earth station via a downlink frequency that is
different from that of the uplink so as to avoid interference with the uplink
signal.
3. Receiving earth station:
 Receives the sent signal on the other side of the globe.
 A communication satellite is usually launched into space about
36,000 km above the earth in such a manner that its speed will be
relatively equal to the rotation speed of the earth.
 These types of satellites are called geostationary satellites.
 They are convenient because they eliminate the need to keep on
moving the parabolic dish in a bid to track the line of sight.
 A geostationary satellite offers a large constant line of sight to earth
stations.
 The area where the line of sight can easily be located is called the
satellites footprint.
 The satellite transmits the signal to many recipients earth stations to
form a point to multipoint transmission.
 The new trends in microwave transmission have seen the
use of very small aperture terminal (VSAT) technology.
 It refers to a very small satellite dish used both in data, radio
and TV communication.
 It enables direct communication instead of having to go
through the state-owned satellite gateways.
 The satellite produces strong signals that can be received
by a satellite dish antenna of only about 2 meters in
diameter.
 The signals are decoded using a decoder which is plugged
directly to a television set or a computer.
III) RADIO COMMUNICATION
 Radio waves travel just like surface water waves.
 They are omnidirectional i.e., they start from a central
point and spread outwards in all directions.
 Their energy spreads outwards over the covered area.
 The waves are radiated into the atmosphere by a radio
frequency antenna at constant velocity.
 Radio waves are not visible to the human eye.
 They are used in radio and television broadcasts.
 Data can also be transmitted over radio waves communication
channels.
 Radio waves can be of high frequency, very high frequency or ultra-
high frequency.
A) High frequency (HF) radio waves
 A Signal is propagated by directing it to the ionosphere of the earth.
 The iron sphere will reflect it back to the earth’s surface and the receiver will
pick the signal.
 The biggest challenge of HF communication is the danger of signal interception
by unauthorized parties.
b) Very high frequency (VHF) radio waves
 Transmitted along the earth’s surface.
 Due to the curvature of the earth, the signal will most likely attenuate
at the horizon.
 Repeater stations have to therefore be placed strategically to maintain
a line of sight in order to receive, amplify and propagate the signal
from one area to another.
 Common technology with the hand-held radio devices like ‘walkie-
talkie’ radios.
 The range of VHF is limited but preferred to high frequency where
no major obstructions are encountered on the landscape, because it is
possible to make the wave to follow a narrower and more direct path
to the receiver.
 To overcome the obstructions on the earth surface like mountains and
buildings, repeater stations are built on raised areas.
c) Ultra high frequency (UHF) radio waves.
 They are like VHF when it comes to the line-of-sight principle i.e.,
there should be no barrier between the sending and the receiving
aerial.
 They require smaller aerials.
 The TV aerial for VHF is bigger than the one for UHF radio waves
because UHF radio waves can be made to follow an even narrower
and direct path to the receiver than VHF radio waves.
 Therefore, UHF is popular for horizon limited broadcasts.
IV) BLUETOOTH TECHNOLOGY
 A new transmission technology i.e., a short-range
technology that enables people to use hand held
communication devices like cell phones and PDAs to
access the internet.
 It enhances communication of personal communication
devices through wireless technology.
 The main component in Bluetooth is a small low power
two-way radio transceiver, small enough to be inserted in
small devices.
 A network of Bluetooth enabled devices is called a wireless
personal area network (WPAN) or piconet.
V) INFRARED TRANSMISSION
 Fall just below the visible light on the electromagnetic spectrum.
 They are not visible to the human eye.
 Communication is achieved by having infrared transmitters and receivers
(transceivers).
 Transceivers of infrared signals must be within a line of sight in the same room.
 Unlike radio signals, infrared signals cannot penetrate obstacles like walls.
However, the signal can be reflected off surfaces like walls and ceiling until they
reach their destination.
 An example is the infrared transceiver on most mobile phones.
 Once activated, two people in the same room can send messages to each other on
their mobile phones without going through the mobile service provider.
 In computer networking, the technology can be used to connect devices in the same
room to each other without need for cables e.g., a computer to a printer.
 The computers infrared transceiver must maintain a line of sight with the one for the
printer.
Advantages of wireless communications
 1. Wireless medium is flexible in operation as compared
to bounded media i.e., devices can be moved around
without losing access to the network.
 2. Wireless networks can span large geographical areas
easily.
 3. It can take place via satellite even in very remote areas
that do not have high-cost physical infrastructure like
telephone lines.
Disadvantages of wireless communications
1. Relatively difficult to establish or configure.
2. The initial cost is very high.
COMMUNICATION DEVICES
 These are devices used as interfaces or junctions between
the terminal devices.
 Terminal equipment are devices at both ends of the
communication link such as a computer.
Examples of data communication devices include:
 i) NICs.
 ii) Modems and codecs.
 iii) Hubs.
 iv) Bridges.
 v) Repeaters.
 vi) Routers.
 vii) Gateways.
 viii)Switches.
 ix) Access points.

I) NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS (NIC)

 Creates a physical link between the computer and the transmission media.
 It is plugged into an empty expansion slot on the motherboard.
 However, most computer motherboards to day come ready with an onboard
network interface controller.
II) MODEMS AND CODECS
 A modem converts a signal from digital to analog form for the purpose of
transmission over the analog media.
 A codec converts an analog signal to digital form for transmission via a digital
medium.
 A modem can be external, an add-on card or built on the motherboard
III) HUBS Illustration pg 24
 Also called a concentrator.
 It is a component that connects computers on a network and is able
to relay signals from one computer to another on the same network.
 A hub usually connects networks that have a common
architecture i.e., one that has the same set of communication
software usually called protocols.
 Protocols are a set of rules that govern the communication
between devices on a network.
 A hub transmits signals by broadcasting them to all the
components on the network.
 After the signal is broadcasted, the computer whose address is on
the message picks the message from the network that is part of
the broadcast domain.
 Some hubs called intelligent hubs are able to monitor the way
computers are communicating on the network and keep the
information in a small database of their own called a management
information base (MIB).
 The NT server can then use this information to fine-tune the NT.
 Intelligent hubs can be able to manage a NT by isolating computers
that are not functioning properly.
 Several hubs can be connected together one after another to expand
a NT. However, this increases the broadcast range which may lead
to broadcast storms on the network.
 Broadcast storm refers to a condition where a NT is
overwhelmed with message broadcasts due to malfunctioning of
NICs or hub related problems.
IV) BRIDGES illustration pg 25.
 NT device that selectively determines the appropriate NT segment for which
message is meant for delivery through address filtering.
 A bridge can divide a busy network into segments to reduce network traffic.

Purpose of using a bridge:

1.To extend the length and number of stations that a segment can support.
2. Reduce overall traffic flow by allowing broadcasts only in the data destination
segment of the NT.
 A bridge makes sure that packets that are not meant for a particular segment are
not broadcasted in that segment.

REPEATERS
 A device that receives a signal from one segment of a NT, cleans it to remove any
distortion, boosts it and then sends it to another segment.
 It enables NT to eliminate attenuation problems.
 They are the simplest way to expand a NT because they broadcast the same
message to other NT segments.
 However, they should be used with reservation, because they expand the broadcast
domain, which may lead to broadcast storms on the NT.
 A broadcast storm is a condition whereby the NT is oversaturated with messages
making communication impossible.
V) ROUTERS
 Interconnects different NTs and directs the transfer of data packets from
source to destination.
 Routing depends on NT addresses.
 Each NT has a unique identifier or address called the network address.
 All the computers on the same network have the same network address nut different
host numbers.
 The router receives a packet from another router on the internetwork and checks
the destination’s network address.
 If the address is the same as the one on which the router is, it passes the data
packet to the destination host by reading the host address otherwise the packet will
be routed to the next network address.
 Some modern routing devices combine the functionality of a bridge and a router,
called a router.
VI) GATEWAYS Illustration pg 27
A gateway is any device that can be configured to provide access to wide area networks
or Internet. One such device is the router in which the gateway software is installed.
A gateway is the most powerful network and internetwork connectivity device because of its
ability to convert data across different network architectures and protocols.
VII) SWITCHES Illustration pg 28
 Unlike a hub, a switch forwards a packet directly to the address node without broadcasting.
 A node refers to data terminal equipment such as a workstation or a computer on the
network.
 The switch does this by connecting two nodes point to point as if they were linked by a
direct cable between them.
 Some hubs also incorporate the switching mechanisms. Such a hub is referred to as a
switching hub.
 Switches are more expensive than hubs. This means that one switch may be used as a
bridge to connect several hubs in order to reduce collision problems caused by broadcasts.
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION DEVICES
 As the cost of wireless technology goes down and the quality-
of-service increases, it is becoming cost effective for
companies and individuals to extend the capability of wired
networks by integrating wireless segments into their
communications.
 Some of the most common devices used in wireless
communication include access points, the antenna and the
PCMCIA card.
I) ACCESS POINTS (AP)
 An entry point into a bounded network for people who have
wireless devices such as PDAs, laptops and computers with
wireless links.
II) WIRELESS ANTENNAE
 The access point needs to have antennas in order to detect signals in the
surrounding.
 The waves may be radio waves, microwaves or infrared waves in
nature.
 In most cases, access points will have two antennas so that the one
that receives the best signal at any particular time can be used.
III) PERSONAL COMPUTER MEMORY CARD INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION
(PCMCIA) card.
 An add-on card inserted into a device such as PDAs or a laptop in order
to enable wireless communication between the devices and a wired
network server.
NETWORK SOFTWARE
 Can be classified into two main groups namely:
 1. Network operating systems.
 2. Network protocols.

 Designed to optimi1. NETWORKING OPERATING SYSTEMS

 ze the networked computer’s ability to respond to service requests.
 Servers run on a network operating system.
Main network related functions of NT O.S.
i) Provides access to network resources e.g., printers.
ii) Enables nodes on the NT to communicate with each other more
efficiently.
 iii) Supports inter process communication i.e., enables the various
processes on the NT to communicate with one another.
iv) Respond to requests from application programs running on the network.
v) Supporting NT services like NT card drivers and protocols.
vi) Implementing NT security features.
 In most cases, NT O.S. is designed as multi-user operating systems
that run the network server program.
 Once installed on the right hardware platform and configured as a
server, the operating system will provide network management tools
to network administrators for the to do the following:
i) Secure the network against unauthorized access.
ii) Track network usage and keep a log/record of all the people who
use the network.
iii) Ensure inter-operability between various systems on
the network.
iv) Performance monitoring to ensure maximum throughput on the
network.
Examples of NT operating systems:
a) Windows NT/2000/2003
b) UNIX
c) Linux
d) Novel Netware.
NB:
 Internetworking devices like routers also have operating systems of their
own and hence they can be managed and configured for optimum
performance.
 Routers are special purpose computers.

2. PROTOCOLS
 These are sets of rules and procedures that govern communication
between two different devices or people.
 In computer networking, protocols refer to the rules and technical
procedures that govern communication between different computers.
WORKING MECHANISM OF PROTOCOLS
 The data transmission process over the NT has to be broken
down into discrete systematic steps.
 At each step, a certain action takes place.
 Each step has its own rules and procedures as defined by the
NT protocols.
 The work of these protocols must be coordinated so that there
are no conflicts or incomplete operations.
 This co-ordination is achieved through protocol layering.
 NT protocols are designed after the open systems
interconnection (OSI) model.
 The OSI model is not a protocol as such but is meant to help
designers to come up with high quality layered protocols.
 It has seven layers, each performing distinct functions as
shown below:
Application layer protocols:
 Application protocols work at the highest layer of the OSI
model.
 They provide services to application programs.
Examples of application protocols:
a) An e-mail program that enables composing or reading of e-
mail messages.
b) Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) – An Internet protocol
for transferring e-mails.
c) File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – for file transfer.
d) Apple talk and apple share – Apple computers networking
protocol suit.
Transport layer protocols:
 Ensure that data is passed between computers more reliably.
Examples of transport protocols
a) Transmission control protocol (TCP) - Responsible for delivery of sequenced data over
the network.
 b) Sequential Packet Exchange (SPX) - Part of the Novell’s internet work packet
exchange/sequential packet exchange (IPX/SPX) for sequenced data.
 c) NetBEUI: a local area network protocol for Microsoft and IBM networks that
establishes communication sessions between computers.
d) Apple transaction protocol: (ATP): Apple computer’s communication session and data
transport protocol.
Network layer protocols
 Provide link services.
 They handle addressing and routing information, error checking and retransmission of
requests.
Examples of network layer protocols
a) Internet protocol (IP) – it does packet forwarding and routing.
b) Internetwork packets exchange: Netwares protocol for packet forwarding and
 routing.
c) NetBEUI: provides data transport services, Netbius sessions and applications.
4. DATA SIGNAL
 All messages that are sent and received through the network must be represented using
a data signal.
 Metallic media would require an electrical signal, wireless media need
electromagnetic signals while fibre optic cables need light signals.

 A signal can either be analog or digital.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Topology:
 It is the physical arrangement of computers on a network.
 Refers to the way in which computers and other devices have been arranged or how data is
passed from one computer to another in the network.
 It is the way in which the points or stations of a network interlink (interact together).
 It determines the data paths that may be followed or used between points in the
network.
 Network topology can be viewed in two ways:
 a) logical topology.
 b) Physical topology.
A. LOGICAL TOPOLOGY
 Also called signal topology.
 Deals with the way data passes from one device to the next on the NT.

Examples of logical topology

 i) Ethernet topology.
 ii) token ring topology.
I) ETHERNET TOPOLOGY
 All computers listen to the network media and can only send data when none
of the others is sending.
II) TOKEN RING TOPOLOGY
 A special package for data called a token goes around the network and only
the computer whose address is on the data held in the token will take up the
token to read the data and then release the token.
 The token can then be captured by another computer which needs to
transmit data.
B. PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY
 Refers to the physical layout or arrangement of components on the network.
Examples of physical topology
 i) Star topology.
 ii) Bus topology.
 iii) Ring topology.
 iv) Mesh topology.
 v) Tree/hierarchical topology.

I. STAR TOPOLOGY
 A set up where all devices are connected to a central hub/server/switch.
 A host computer is attached to locals through multiple communication lines.
 The local computers are not linked directly to each other.
 Between any two stations, communication is via the central computer.
 When the hub/central machine receives data from a transmitting
computer, it broadcasts the message to all the other nodes on the NT.
ADVANTAGES OF STAR TOPOLOGY
1. Star networks are easy to configure.
2. network failures due to cables breakdown are low since
cables are not shared.
 3. failure of any computer does not affect communication in
the NT, unless it has major effects on the host computer.
 4. wiring hubs increases flexibility for growth i.e., additional
and deletion of nodes does not involve interfering with the
others.
5. allows centralization of key networking resources like
concentrators and servers.
 6. gives the NT administrator a focal point for NT
management. It is easier for the administrator to troubleshoot
and diagnose NT related problems.
Disadvantages of star topology
1. If the central hub fails, the entire network will be grounded.
2. Installation is time consuming; each node forms a segment of its
own.
3. It is costly, requires one complete cable per computer.

II. BUS TOPOLOGY

 Also known as Daisy-chain topology or multipoint network.
 All devices are connected to a central cable called the bus or
backbone.
 All stations are attached directly through appropriate interfacing
hardware to the transmission medium.
 Each workstation on the network must be capable of knowing
when it can and cannot transmit data using the shared medium,
since the cable can carry only one message at a time.
 A terminator is attached to each end of the cable to
avoid signals from bouncing back and forth on the
cable causing signal distortion.
 As the data passes along the cable, each station checks
whether the data is addressed to it.
 If the address matches the machine’s address, it receives
the data otherwise it rejects it.
 The network addresses of computers on a network is
called the medium access control (MAC) address.
Advantages of bus topology
1. It is easy to install.
2. Requires fewer physical lines hence less costly.
3. It is independent i.e.; any single computer can’t affect
communication between other computers.
4. Easy to expand, just need to add the new computer on the line.

Disadvantages of bus topology

1. Only one node can transmit signals at a time.
2. Failure or fault in the transmission line affects the whole
communication network.
3. Troubleshooting a cable fault is difficult.
 4. Limits the number of computers that can be connected to
the cable. Increase in the number of computers results in an
increased collision as machines compete for transmission.
III. RING TOPOLOGY
 All devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed
loop.
 There is no host computer.
 Each station is responsible for regenerating and retransmitting
signals around the network to its neighbour.
 It uses repeaters (devices that receive data at one end and transmit it
bit by bit to the other end).
 A special bit pattern called a token is circulated around the ring
sequentially from one node to the next and a node is only permitted
to transmit data when it receives the token.
 A token can be viewed as an envelope or a bag where data is placed
for transmission and carried around the network.
 All computers in ring topology have equal capabilities of sending
and receiving
Advantages of ring topology
1. They use short length cables – less costly.
2. Simple to install.
3. Very effective where there is distributed data processing.
4. More reliable because of alternate routing if one computer
breaks down.
5. The packet delivery time is fixed and guaranteed.

Disadvantages of ring topology

1. Installation requires sophisticated software.
 2. Delays in communication are directly proportional to the
number of nodes the message has to pass through.
 3. Requires a lot of reconfigurations when new nodes are added.
4. Troubleshooting can be difficult.
5. Token management must be robust because loss or
corruption of the token can cause chaos.
 6. One device or media breakdown may affect the
entire network. However, this is not the case with IBM
token ring where a device called Multi Station Access
Unit (MSAU) is used for station bypass in the event a
station fails.
7. Modification may be difficult because adding or
removing a device can disrupt the entire network.
IV) MESH TOPOLOGY
 Most common type used in WAN, where there are many paths
between different locations.
 Devices are connected with many redundant interconnections
between the nodes.
 Every node has a connection to every other node in the NT, making
possible for direct communication with every computer hence
every computer dictates its priorities.
Advantages of mesh topology
1. The network is reliable and effective due to direct relationship
between the computers.
2. Point to point connections optimize throughput of data.
3. The NT can still operate even when a node breaks down or a
connection break.
Disadvantages of mesh topology
1. It is expensive on cable due to redundant links.
2. Administration of the network is difficult because of the
peer-to-peer connections.
V) TREE/THERARCHICAL TOPOLOGY
 A hybrid topology.
 Groups of stars – configured networks are connected to a
linear bus backbone.
 It can also be derived out of breeding a combination of other
networks.
Advantages of tree topology
1. Failure of one or more nodes does not affect the
whole network.
2. Failure of a single branch does not bring the whole
network down.
Disadvantages of tree topology
1. Communication path can sometimes become quite
long.
2. Installation can become costly and complex.
SETTING UP PEER – TO – PEER LAN
Hardware requirements
1. A computer running on any version of Ms Windows
especially Windows 9x/2000/Me/Windows Xp.
 2. Network interface card (NIC). Some computers may have it
already installed onboard so that you do not have to purchase
one.
3. A hub or a switch.
4. Transmission media preferably unshielded twisted pair
category 5.
5. RJ45 connectors.
Tools
1. Crimping tool.
2. Cable tester.
3. Screw drivers.
NETWORK SECURITY
 In networking, there are several ways of enforcing security, one of
them is share level and the other is user level security.
a) Share level security
 A simple network security used in peer-to-peer networks.
 The user can decide which resources to give for sharing.
 Most desktop O.S. such as Windows 9x provide such kind of
security.
b) User-level utility
 Used on server-based networks.
 A network administrator assigns accounts to users.
 Each user is provided with a unique name and password which
he/she can use to access network resources.
THE END
GOD BLESS YOU ALL