CIV 8301: Computational Methods

in Civil Engineering
Prepared by Najiyu Abubakar
 Need for Computational Methods

• Solutions using either strength of materials or theory of

elasticity are normally accomplished for regions and loadings
with relatively simple geometry
• Many applications involve cases with complex shape,
boundary conditions and material behavior
• Therefore a gap exists between what is needed in
applications and what can be solved by analytical closed-form
methods
• This has lead to the development of several
numerical/computational schemes including: finite difference,
finite element and boundary element methods
 Introduction to Finite Element Analysis
• The technique has very wide application, and has been used on problems
involving stress analysis, fluid mechanics, heat transfer, diffusion, vibrations,
electrical and magnetic fields, etc. The fundamental concept involves
dividing the body under study into a finite number of pieces (subdomains)
called elements (see Figure).
• Particular assumptions are then made on the variation of the unknown
dependent variable(s) across each element using so-called interpolation or
approximation functions.
• The method can accurately simulate solutions to problems of complex
geometry and loading and thus this technique has become a very useful and
practical tool.
 Advantages of Finite Element Analysis

- Models Bodies of Complex Shape

- Can Handle General Loading/Boundary Conditions
- Models Bodies Composed of Composite and Multiphase Materials
- Model is Easily Refined for Improved Accuracy by Varying
Element Size and Type (Approximation Scheme)
- Time Dependent and Dynamic Effects Can Be Included
- Can Handle a Variety Nonlinear Effects Including Material
Behavior, Large Deformations, Boundary Conditions, Etc.
Basic Concept of the Finite Element Method
Any continuous solution field such as stress, displacement,
temperature, pressure, etc. can be approximated by a
discrete model composed of a set of piecewise continuous
functions defined over a finite number of subdomains.

One-Dimensional Temperature Distribution

T T

Approximate Piecewise
Exact Analytical Solution Linear Solution

x x
 Two-Dimensional Discretization

u(x,y)
-1

-2

-3
4
3.5
3
3 2.5
2
2.5 1.5
Approximate Piecewise 2 1
Linear Representation 0.5
1.5 0
-0.5
1 -1
y
x
 Discretization Concepts
T

Exact Temperature Distribution, T(x)

Finite Element Discretization

Linear Interpolation Model Quadratic Interpolation Model
T1 (Four Elements) T (Two Elements)
1
T2
T2 T2
T3 T3 T3
T4 T4 T3
T4 T5
T5

T T
T1 T1
T2 T2
T3 T3
T4 T5 T4 T5

x x
Piecewise Linear Approximation Piecewise Quadratic Approximation
Temperature Continuous but with Temperature and Temperature Gradients
Discontinuous Temperature Gradients Continuous
 Common Types of Elements
Two-Dimensional Elements
One-Dimensional Elements Triangular, Quadrilateral
Line Plates, Shells, 2-D Continua
Rods, Beams, Trusses, Frames

Three-Dimensional Elements
Tetrahedral, Rectangular Prism (Brick)
3-D Continua
 Discretization Examples

Three-Dimensional
One-Dimensional Two-Dimensional Brick Elements
Frame Elements Triangular Elements
Basic Steps in the Finite Element Method
Time Independent Problems
- Domain Discretization
- Select Element Type (Shape and Approximation)
- Derive Element Equations (Variational and Energy Methods)
- Assemble Element Equations to Form Global System

[K]{U} = {F}
[K] = Stiffness or Property Matrix
{U} = Nodal Displacement Vector
{F} = Nodal Force Vector

- Incorporate Boundary and Initial Conditions

- Solve Assembled System of Equations for Unknown Nodal
Displacements and Secondary Unknowns of Stress and Strain Values
Common Sources of Error in FEA

• Domain Approximation
• Element Interpolation/Approximation
• Numerical Integration Errors
(Including Spatial and Time Integration)
• Computer Errors (Round-Off, Etc., )
Measures of Accuracy in FEA
Accuracy
Error = |(Exact Solution)-(FEM Solution)|

Convergence
Limit of Error as:
Number of Elements (h-convergence)
or
Approximation Order (p-convergence)
Increases
Ideally, Error  0 as Number of Elements or
Approximation Order  
Two-Dimensional Discretization Refinement

(Node)


(Discretization with 228 Elements)



(Triangular Element)

(Discretization with 912 Elements)

 One Dimensional Examples
Static Case
Bar Element Beam Element
Uniaxial Deformation of Bars Deflection of Elastic Beams
Using Strength of Materials Theory Using Euler-Bernouli Theory

w1 w2
u1 u2
2
1 2 1 1 2

Differenti al Equation : Differenti al Equation :

d d2 d 2w
 ( au )  cu  q 0  (b 2 )  f ( x )
dx dx 2
dx
Boundary Condtions Specification : Boundary Condtions Specification :
du dw d 2w d d 2w
u,a w, ,b 2 , (b )
dx dx dx dx dx 2
 Two Dimensional Examples
Triangular Element Triangular Element
Scalar-Valued, Two-Dimensional Vector/Tensor-Valued, Two-
Field Problems Dimensional Field Problems
v3


3 3 u3
v2

2
u2
2
v1
1

 1 u1
Elasticity Field Equations in Terms of Displacements
Example Different ial Equation :
E   u v 
2 u      Fx 0
2(1  ) x  x y 
2 2
 
  f ( x, y )
x 2 y 2
E   u v 
Boundary Condtions Specification : 2 v      F y 0
2(1  ) y  x y 
d  
,  nx  n y Boundary Conditons
dn x y
 u v   u v 
Tx  C11  C12  n x  C66    n y
 x y   y x 
 u v   u v 
T y C66    n x   C12  C 22  n y
 y x   x y 
 Development of Finite Element Equation
• The Finite Element Equation Must Incorporate the Appropriate Physics
of the Problem
• For Problems in Structural Solid Mechanics, the Appropriate Physics
Comes from Either Strength of Materials or Theory of Elasticity
• FEM Equations are Commonly Developed Using Direct, Variational-
Virtual Work or Weighted Residual Methods
Direct Method
Based on physical reasoning and limited to simple cases, this method is
worth studying because it enhances physical understanding of the process
Variational-Virtual Work Method
Based on the concept of virtual displacements, leads to relations between internal and
external virtual work and to minimization of system potential energy for equilibrium
Weighted Residual Method
Starting with the governing differential equation, special mathematical operations
develop the “weak form” that can be incorporated into a FEM equation. This
method is particularly suited for problems that have no variational statement. For
stress analysis problems, a Ritz-Galerkin WRM will yield a result identical to that
found by variational methods.
 Simple Element Equation Example
Direct Stiffness Derivation
u1 u2

F1 F2
1 2
k
Equilibrium at Node 1  F1 ku1  ku 2
Equilibrium at Node 2  F2  ku1  ku 2

or in Matrix Form

 k  k   u1   F1 
 k     
 k  u2   F2 
Stiffness Matrix Nodal Force Vector
[ K ]{u} {F }
Common Approximation Schemes
One-Dimensional Examples
Polynomial Approximation
Most often polynomials are used to construct approximation
functions for each element. Depending on the order of
approximation, different numbers of element parameters are
needed to construct the appropriate function.

Linear Quadratic Cubic

Special Approximation
For some cases (e.g. infinite elements, crack or other singular
elements) the approximation function is chosen to have special
properties as determined from theoretical considerations
 One-Dimensional Bar Element
Approximation : u   k ( x )uk [ N ]{d }
k

du d d[N ]
Strain : e     k ( x )u k  {d } [ B]{d }
dx k dx dx
Stress - Strain Law :   Ee  E[ B]{d }

edV  P u

i i  Pj u j   fudV 

L  Pi  L
{δd }T  A[ B]T E [ B]dx{d } {δd }T    {δd }T  A[ N ]T fdx 
 Pj 
0 0
L L
 
T T
A[ B ] E [ B ]dx{d } { P }  A[ N ] fdx
0 0

L
[ K ]   A[ B]T E[ B]dx Stiffness Matrix
0

 Pi  L
[ K ]{d } {F } {F }      A[ N ]T fdx  Loading Vector
 Pj 
0

 ui 
{d }     Nodal Displacement Vector
u j 
 One-Dimensional Bar Element
Axial Deformation of an Elastic Bar

f(x) = Distributed Loading A = Cross-sectional Area

E = Elastic Modulus
Typical Bar Element
du ui  uj du j
Pi  AE i Pj  AE
dx (i) L (j) dx
(Two Degrees of Freedom)

Virtual Strain Energy = Virtual Work Done by Surface and Body Forces

  e dV  T ui dS   Fi ui dV
n
ij ij i
V St V

For One-Dimensional Case

edV  P u

i i  Pj u j   fudV

 Linear Approximation Scheme
ui uj
x (local coordinate system)
(1) L (2)
u(x)
Approximate Elastic Displacement
u a1
u a1  a 2 x  1
u2 a1  a 2 L
x
u  u1  x  x (1) (2)
 u u1  2 x  1   u1    u2
L  L  L
1 ( x )u1   2 ( x )u2 1(x) 2(x)
 u1   x x   u1 
u 1  2     1    [ N ]{d }
u2   L L  u2  1
[ N ] Approximation Function Matrix
{d } Nodal Displacement Vector x
(1) (2)
k(x) – Lagrange Interpolation Functions
 Element Equation
Linear Approximation Scheme, Constant Properties
 1
L L  L   1 1  AE  1  1
[ K ]   A[ B] E[ B]dx  AE[ B] [ B]dx  AE 
T T
    L  1 1 
0 0 1  L L L  
 
 L 
 x
 P1  L  P1  L
   P  Af L 1
{F }      A[ N ] fdx     Af o   L dx   1   o  
T

 P2  0  P2  0 x  P2  2 1
 
 L 
u 
{d }   1   Nodal Displacement Vector
u2 

AE   1 1   u1   P1  Af o L 1
[ K ]{d } {F }         
L  1  1 u2   P2  2 1
 Quadratic Approximation Scheme
u1 u2 u3
x
(1) (2) (3)
L
Approximat e Elastic Displaceme nt u(x)
u1 a1
2 L L2
u a1  a 2 x  a 3 x  u2 a1  a 2  a 3
2 4 x
u3 a1  a 2 L  a3 L2
(1) (2) (3)
u 1 ( x )u1   2 ( x )u2   3 ( x )u3
2(x)
 u1  3(x)
  1(x)
u 1  2  3 u2  [ N ]{d }
u3  1
Element Equation
x
 7  8 1   u1   F1  (1) (2) (3)
AE     
 8 16  8 u2    F2 
3L  
 1  8 7  u3   F3 
 Lagrange Interpolation Functions
Using Natural or Normalized Coordinates
1 , i  j
 i ( j ) 
0 , i  j
 1
1  (1  )
2
(1)  1  1 (2) 1
 2  (1  )
2
1
1  (1  )
 2
 2 (1  )(1  )
(1) (2) (3)
1
 3  (1  )
2
9 1 1
1  (1  )(  )(  )
16 3 3
27 1
  2  (1  )(1  )(  )
16 3
27 1
(1) (2) (3) (4)  3  (1  )(1  )(  )
16 3
9 1 1
 4  (  )(  )(1  )
16 3 3
 Simple Example
P

A1,E1,L1 A2,E2,L2
Take Zero Distributed Loading
1 2
f 0
(1) (2) (3)
Global Equation Element 1 Global Equation Element 2
 1  1 0 U 1   P1 
(1)
0 0 0  U 1   0 
A1 E1      A2 E 2     
 1 1 0 U 2    P2(1)  0 1  1 U 2    P1( 2 ) 
L1   L2  
 0 0 0 U 3   0   0  1 1  U 3   P2( 2 ) 

Assembled Global System Equation

 A1 E1 A1 E1 
 L  0 
 1 L1  U 1   P1
(1)
  P1 
  1 E1
A A1 E1 A2 E 2
 
A2 E 2     (1)   
U 2    P2  P1( 2 )    P2 
 
L1 L1 L2 L2     (2)  P 
 AE A2 E 2  U 3   P2   3
 0  2 2 
 L2 L2 
 Simple Example Continued
P

A1,E1,L1 A2,E2,L2
1 2
(1) (2) (3)
Reduced Global System Equation
Boundary Conditions  A1 E1 A1 E1 
 L  0 
U 1 0  1 L1   0   P1 
(1)

P2( 2 )  P   A1 E1 A1 E1 A2 E 2

AE   
 2 2  U 2    0 

 L1 L1 L2 L2     
P2(1)  P1( 2 ) 0  AE A2 E 2  U 3   P 
 0  2 2 
 L2 L2 

 A1 E1 A2 E 2 A2 E 2 
 L  L 
L2  U 2   0  For Uniform AE  2  1 U 2   0 
 1 2
    1 1  U    P 
  2 2A E A2 E 2  U 3   P  Properties A, E , L L   3  
 L2 L2 
PL 2 PL
Solving  U 2  , U3  , P1(1)  P
AE AE
 One-Dimensional Beam Element
Deflection of an Elastic Beam

f(x) = Distributed Loading

x

I = Section Moment of Inertia

E = Elastic Modulus

Typical Beam Element d  d 2w   d 2w 

Q1   EI  , Q2  EI 
w1 w2 dx  dx 2  1  dx 2 
1
1 2
 d  d 2w   d 2w 
(1) Q3    EI  , Q4    EI 
L (2)
M2 dx  dx 2  2  dx 2 
2
M1
V1 V2 dw dw
u1  w1 , u2 1   , u3  w2 , u4  2  
(Four Degrees of Freedom) dx 1 dx 2

Virtual Strain Energy = Virtual Work Done by Surface and Body Forces

edV Q u  Q u  Q u  Q w   fwdV 

1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4

L L
EI  [ B] [ B]dx{d } Q u  Q u  Q u  Q w   f [ N ]
T
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
T
dV
0 0
 Beam Approximation Functions
To approximate deflection and slope at each
node requires approximation of the form
w( x ) c1  c2 x  c3 x 2  c4 x 3

Evaluating deflection and slope at each node

allows the determination of ci thus leading to
w( x ) 1 ( x )u1  2 ( x )u2  3 ( x )u3  4 ( x )u4 ,
where i are the Hermite Cubic Approximation Functions
 Beam Element Equation
L L
EI  [ B]T [ B]dx{d } Q1u1  Q2 u2  Q3u3  Q4 w4   f [ N ]T dV
0 0

 u1 
u  d [ N ] d1 d2 d3 d4
  [ B]  [ ]
{d }   2 
dx dx dx dx dx
u3 
u4 

 6  3L  6  3L   1   6 
    L 
L 2 EI   3L 2 L
2
3L L2  L L  2  fL  
0 0 3  12  6 
T
[ K ]  EI  [ B] [ B]dx  3
T  f [ N ] dx  f dx 
0 L   6 3L 6 3L     
 2 2  4   L 
  3 L L 3 L 2 L 

 6  3L  6  3L  u1  Q1   6 

2 EI   3L 2 L
2
3L L2  u2  Q2  fL  L 
       
3
L   6 3L 6 3L  u3  Q3  12  6 
 
  3L L
2
3L 2 L2  u4  Q4   L 
 FEA Beam Problem
f Uniform EI

a b
1 2
(1) (2) (3)
Element 1
 6 / a3  3 / a2  6 / a3  3 / a2 0 0 U1   6  Q1(1) 
 2    a   (1) 
 3/ a 2/a 3 / a2 1/ a 0 0 U 2    Q2 
  6 / a3 3/ a 2
6/a 3
3 / a2 0 0 U 3  fa  6  Q3(1) 
2 EI  2      
 3/ a 1/ a 3 / a2 2/a 0 0 U 4  12  a  Q4(1) 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 U 5  0  0 
      
 0 0 0 0 0 0 U 6   0   0 

Element 2
0 0 0 0 0 0  U1   0 
0
 0 0 0 0 0  U 2   0 
0 0 6/b 3
 3/ b 2
 6 / b3  3 / b 2  U 3  Q1( 2 ) 
2 EI      
0 0  3 / b2 2/b 3 / b2 1 / b  U 4  Q2( 2 ) 
0 0  6 / b3 3 / b2 6 / b3 3 / b 2  U 5  Q3( 2 ) 
    
 0 0  3 / b2 1/ b 3 / b2 2 / b  U 6  Q4( 2 ) 
 FEA Beam Problem
1 2
(1) (2) (3)

Global Assembled System

 6 / a3  3 / a2  6 / a3  3 / a2 0 0  U1   6   Q1(1) 
    a   (1) 
  2/a 3 / a2 1/ a 0 0  U 2     Q2 
   3
6/a 6/b 3 2
3/ a  3/ b 2
 6 / a3 2
 3/ a  3 U   6   (1)
fa   Q3  Q1  ( 2) 
2 EI        
    2/a 2/b 3 / a2 1 / a  U 4  12  a  Q4(1)  Q2( 2 ) 
     6 / a3 3 / a 2  U 5   0   Q3( 2 ) 
      
      2 / a  U 6   0   Q4( 2 ) 

Boundary Conditions Matching Conditions

(1) (1) ( 2) ( 2)
U 1 w 1 0 , U 2  1 0 , Q 3 Q 4 0 Q3(1)  Q1( 2 ) 0 , Q4(1)  Q2( 2 ) 0

Reduced System
 6 / a 3  6 / b3 3 / a2  3 / b2  6 / a3  3 / a 3  U1  6  0
      
 2/a 2/b 3 / a2 1 / a  U 2  fa a  0
2 EI       
   6 / a3 3 / a 2  U 3  12 0  0
 
    2 / a  U 4  0  0

Solve System for Primary Unknowns U1 ,U2 ,U3 ,U4

Nodal Forces Q1 and Q2 Can Then Be Determined
 Special Features of Beam FEA

Analytical Solution Gives Analytical Solution Gives

Cubic Deflection Curve Quartic Deflection Curve

FEA Using Hermit Cubic Interpolation

Will Yield Results That Match Exactly
With Cubic Analytical Solutions
 Truss Element
Generalization of Bar Element With Arbitrary Orientation

k=AE/L

s sin  , c cos 
 Frame Element
Generalization of Bar and Beam Element with Arbitrary Orientation
w1 w2
1 2
u1 u2
P1 
P2
(1) L (2)
M2
M1
V1 V2
 AE AE 
 L 0 0  0 0 
L
 12 EI 6 EI 12 EI 6 EI   u   P 
 0 0   1 1
 L3 L2 L3 L2   w  Q 
 0 6 EI 4 EI 6 EI 2 EI   1   1 
0  2
 L2 L L L   1   Q2 
 AE AE   u2   P2 
 0 0 0 0    
 L 12 EI 6 EI
L
12 EI 6 EI   w2  Q3 
 0   0  2    2  Q4 
 L3 L2 L3 L 
 0 6 EI 2 EI 6 EI 4 EI 
 0  2
L2 L L L 

Element Equation Can Then Be Rotated to Accommodate Arbitrary Orientation

 Some Standard FEA References
Bathe, K.J., Finite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis, Prentice-Hall, 1982, 1995.
Beer, G. and Watson, J.O., Introduction to Finite and Boundary Element Methods for Engineers, John Wiley, 1993
Bickford, W.B., A First Course in the Finite Element Method, Irwin, 1990.
Burnett, D.S., Finite Element Analysis, Addison-Wesley, 1987.
Chandrupatla, T.R. and Belegundu, A.D., Introduction to Finite Elements in Engineering, Prentice-Hall, 2002.
Cook, R.D., Malkus, D.S. and Plesha, M.E., Concepts and Applications of Finite Element Analysis, 3rd Ed., John Wiley,
1989.
Desai, C.S., Elementary Finite Element Method, Prentice-Hall, 1979.
Fung, Y.C. and Tong, P., Classical and Computational Solid Mechanics, World Scientific, 2001.
Grandin, H., Fundamentals of the Finite Element Method, Macmillan, 1986.
Huebner, K.H., Thorton, E.A. and Byrom, T.G., The Finite Element Method for Engineers, 3rd Ed., John Wiley, 1994.
Knight, C.E., The Finite Element Method in Mechanical Design, PWS-KENT, 1993.
Logan, D.L., A First Course in the Finite Element Method, 2nd Ed., PWS Engineering, 1992.
Moaveni, S., Finite Element Analysis – Theory and Application with ANSYS, 2nd Ed., Pearson Education, 2003.
Pepper, D.W. and Heinrich, J.C., The Finite Element Method: Basic Concepts and Applications, Hemisphere, 1992.
Pao, Y.C., A First Course in Finite Element Analysis, Allyn and Bacon, 1986.
Rao, S.S., Finite Element Method in Engineering, 3rd Ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998.
Reddy, J.N., An Introduction to the Finite Element Method, McGraw-Hill, 1993.
Ross, C.T.F., Finite Element Methods in Engineering Science, Prentice-Hall, 1993.
Stasa, F.L., Applied Finite Element Analysis for Engineers, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1985.
Zienkiewicz, O.C. and Taylor, R.L., The Finite Element Method, Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1977, 1989.