INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

PERSONALITY: History, definitions, approaches, and structure

PERSONALITY: Traits in everyday life, what do they predict?

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: Abnormal behavior and mental illness

INTELLIGENCE: Measurement of human abilities, IQ tests

INTELLIGENCE: IQ in everyday life, what does it predict?

BEHAVIOR GENETICS: Genetic and environmental influences

BEYOND IQ: Searching for novel abilities (social, emotional, etc.)

MOOD AND MOTIVATION: Differences within-individuals

CREATIVITY: Relationship to personality and intelligence

LEADERSHIP: Situational, personal, and interactional theories

INTERESTS: Rediscovering the importance of vocations

Traits as general predispositions to act according to interests, values, and preferences

behaviour:
e.g., goes a) different people have
partying
different interests
b) b) different interests
determine different
awareness behaviours
and
intention
c) we are aware, as actors and
I
interests:
preferences: observers, of these interests
e.g., meeting
e.g., likes
people
and behaviours
parties values:
e.g., having d) people tend to act in
fun
consistent manners
 Differential Psychology: Goals and Applications

abnormal clinical
behavior

understand

performance educational
in school
Differences
between
individuals
performance
occupational
at work

predict

relationships general/lay
Intelligence: individual differences in competition and adaptation

 Intelligence, also known as intellectual ability, IQ, cognitive

ability, or “g” (for general intelligence)
 Measures an individual’s ability to adapt and solve problems
 Problems can range from complex mathematical tests to
simple reaction time (RT) experiments and even practical tasks
 Intelligence can be broken down into minor skills or abilities
 It is measured through standardised multiple-choice tests
 Individual’s performance is compared to the norm (that of
others’)
 IQ is a powerful and widely-used tool for classification and
selection of individuals
 In educational and occupational settings, it has proven very
effective
Different predictors of future success (including IQ)

IQ

biodata references

Future
success

Personality
CV
inventories

interview

Which one works best?

 Figure #1.7: Genetic and environmental determinants of individual differences

mother
father

Are similarities with our

parents (e.g., personality,
intelligence) inherited or
“acquired”, that is, learned?
son

Are they genetically (nature) daughter

or environmentally (nurture)
determined?
Traits, motivation, mood and situational factors

Traits

motivation behavior mood

Situational
factors
Figure #1.9: Fluency and originality as indicators of creativity or creative responses

Instruction: You have one minute to name all the things you could do with a
chair

sit
lock
? a door

hit
? someone
Can you CHAIR
think of stand Which
?
more on it responses

uses of are more

burn it
? (fire)
a chair? work original
out and why?
Figure #2.1: Situational (states), ideographic, and nomothetic (types and traits)
approaches to the study of personality

p1

1)Situational: personality as inconsistent states/behaviors

p2

p1

2)Ideographic: describes different people with different terms

types p1 p2

p1 p2
traits

3)Nomothetic: describes different people using same types

(extremes) or traits (continuum)
Figure #2.3: Dispositional approaches to personality: traits and types

traits types

• continuous • discontinuous
• degree (how?) • discrete (what?)
• quantitative • qualitative
• ordinal • categorical
• score on x-y factor • x or y

x y x y
Figure #2.2: Personality traits as psychological determinants of consistent behaviors

WHAT ARE PERSONALITY TRAITS?

• General descriptions of individuals
• Implicit explanations of their behavior
• Internal characteristics of the individual
• Causal determinants of repetitive behaviors
• They explain and predict systematic
differences
• As well as similarities between individuals
3 EXAMPLES:
a) Pete is a selfish guy
b) Leo is a happy girl
c) Sven is incredibly obsessive
 Figure #3.2: correlation and causation (5 possible paths)

1 x y 4 x yz y

2 5
y x y z x

H1: Smoking causes Neuroticism

x H2: Neuroticism causes smoking

H3: Physiological arousal causes both smoking and
3 Neuroticism
z
H4: Smoking causes physiological arousal, which in turn
causes Neuroticism
y H5: Neuroticism causes physiological arousal, which in
turn causes smoking
 Figure #3.2 Moderation

•Gender and smoking are uncorrelated or independent (they do not overlap)

•Gender and smoking are both correlated with stress
•Both men and women are more likely to experience stress if they are smokers
•Both smokers and non-smokers are more likely to experience stress if they are male

x z

y
x = gender, y = smoking, z = stress
 Figure #3.4 Personality and health: 3 types of influence

Personality

A (-), N (+) C (+)

C (-), N (+)

Intrinsic Risky Prevention

dispositions: behavioral choices & reaction
anger smoking visits to doctor
mistrust drugs treatment

-
- +

HEALTH

Note. A = Agreeableness, N = Neuroticism, C = Conscientiousness, + =

positive influence, - = negative influence
 Figure #3.4 Personality, culture, and happiness

Personality Culture
(dispositional (situational
Influences) influences)

Extraversion Life events

Emotional Socio-politico-
Stability economic factors

happiness
Figure #3.5 Personality and subjective well-being: the “bigger picture”

Well-being

Social
A

N
Subjective Quality of life

C
Economic

Neuroticism, E = Extraversion, A = Agreeableness, C = Conscientiousness

 Differential Psychology and Pyschopathology

Abnormality Abnormality
(psychopathology) (psychopathology)

Normality (differential psychology)

Figure #4.2: four criteria for defining abnormality

Statistical
(low frequency)

Maladaptiveness
Suffering
(problems in abnormality (of the individual)
everyday life)

Mental illness
(connection with
Symptoms)
Figure #4.4: Diathesis-stress model: An integrative approach to psychopathology

Genetic
predisposition
(vulnerability)

impaired
diathesis social
functioning

interaction symptoms

impaired
stress occupational
functioning

Environmental
Triggers
(potentiators)
Figure #4.5: A simplified adaptation of McCrae & Costa’s (1999) dynamic personality
model

External influences
Cultural norms, life events

Characteristic adaptations: Self-concept:

goals, attitudes, beliefs, etc. self-schemas, personal myths

Basic Traits
Neuroticism
Extraversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness

genes
 Figure #5.1: Personality and intelligence chapters in context

personality intelligence

what does it what does it

is it? matter? is it? matter?

chapter #2 chapter #3 chapter #5 chapter #6

Figure #5.1: Graphical depiction of the latent concept of intelligence in relation to both test scores
and real-world performance

Time 1 Time 2

test performance
scores school/job

“intelligence”

latent influence
observable correlation
 Figure #5.3: Graphical depiction of the bell curve or normal distribution of IQ

The “bell curve” figure below shows the normal distribution of IQ scores, which have a
mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Thus if your IQ = 100 you have “average”
intelligence, whereas an IQ = 130 shows superior intelligent, and an IQ = 70 signals
borderline retardation.

SD -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3

IQ 55 70 85 100 115 130 145

Mild Borderline Low Average Above Superior Gifted
Retardation Retardation Average Average
Figure #5.3: Illustration of the concept of g (general intelligence) as underlying common variance to
different cognitive tests

test 2
scores
test 1 test 3
scores scores

test 6 test 4
scores scores

test 5
scores
 Figure #5.4: Cattell’s (1987) 3 components of intelligence

Gf Gsar

non-verbal tests performance tests

e.g., numerical e.g., S-T memory

Gc

latent correlation verbal & knowledge

me asured through tests, e.g., vocabulary
 Figure #5.5: Some possible combinations for the causal relationships underlying the significant
correlations between intelligence, education and socio-economic status

Ed IQ SES
IQ SES Ed
SES Ed IQ

Ed IQ SES
IQ SES Ed

SES Ed IQ

Note: IQ = intelligence, Ed = education, SES = socio-economic status (only unidirectional causations are
presented)
 Figure #5.6: A graphical depiction of Guilford’s (1977) model of intelligence

Test

operations products

contents
-

units, classes,
cognition, memory auditory, visual,
relations, systems,
divergent, convergent, symbolic, semantic
transformations,
evaluation behavioral
implications

5 X 5 X 6
= 150
 Figure #5.7: Conceptual representation of Carroll’s (1993) hierarchical structure of intelligence

process. visual
speed auditory percep.
cognitive
speed percep.
memory retrieval
learning
Gf Gc
Figure #6.4 Mediated and direct effects of g on job performance

Training
performance

JOB
g performance
 Figure #6.4: Occupational consequences of IQ (based on Gottfredson, 2004)

Low, slow, Explicit, Mastery, Written Gathers,

Training University
simple, hands-on learning, materials + infers, self-
potential type
supervised hands-on experience training

Clerk, teller
Assembler Police officer Manager Lawyer
Career Machinist
Food service School teacher Scientist
potential Salesperson
Nurse’s aide Accountant CEO

70-75 75-80 80-85 85-90 90-95 95-100 100-105 105-110 110-115 115-120 120-125 125-13
 #9.5 Intelligence predicts health and longevity

health

Self-care
g Risk-prevention LONGEVITY
Optimal treatment

Accident
prevention
#6.5 The path from g to longevity

Better genes

Better informed

Avoid risks

Choose healthy

Live longer
Figure #6.6 Generational gains (father-son) in socio-economic status as a function of IQ
(based on Mascie-Taylor & Gibson, 1978)

IQ points
(difference)

15

10

-5

-10

-15

-20

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Socio-economic (difference)
Figure #6.7 Origin of race differences in IQ and implications

Poverty and social inequalities

GENETIC
Are unchangeable

Society is unfair
ENVIRONMENTAL
towards certain groups

IQ test are designed

TEST BIAS
to favour certain groups
 Figure #6.8: In decline: sex differences in abilities (based on Feingold, 1988)
1.6 M
female Spe speed
1.4 advantage L language

male M mechanical
1.2 M advantage Spa spatial

M
.8 M

Spe
.6
Spa Spe Spe

.4 L L L
L
Spa Spe
Spa
.2 Spa
Standard
deviation
1947 1962 1972 1980
 Figure #9.8 Event-related potentials for low and high IQ subjects
(loosely based on Ertl & Schafer, 1969)

IQ = 145

IQ = 75

0 Time in milliseconds 250

Figure #6.4 g may influence both cognitive performance and brain activity measures

Cognitive performance
Psychometric tests

Brain activity
EEG, ERP
Figure #7.1 Individual differences: Genetically or environmentally determined?

We are born the same

but experience makes as
different

OR

Our experience is
biologically determined

IS OUR EXPERIENCE ARE INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN

INFLUENCED BY PERSONALITY AND
GENETICALLY DETERMINED INTELLIGENCE THE PRODUCT OF
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES? EXPERIENCE?
 Figure #7.2: Family, adoption, and twin designs

Family studies Adoption studies Twin studies

Biological Biological Adoptive Biological Biological

parents parents parents parents parents

G+E G E G+E G+E G+E G+E

child child DZ DZ MZ MZ

Child shares genes (G) and Child shares genes with Fraternal/dizygotic (DZ) twins share 50% of
environment (E) with biological, environment their genes, whilst identical/monozygotic
parents. The effects of with adoptive, parents. (MZ) twins share 100% of their genes.
genes and environment areGenetic effects are evident Comparing MZ and DZ twins will provide
thus confounded if child resembles evidence for the effect of genes (like in
biological parents, and matched designs)
vice-versa
Figure #7.4: IQ correlations for family, adoption and twin designs
(adapted from Plomin & Spinath, 2004)

r values
1 Common genes and
environment
0.9
Adopted- Common
0.8 apart MZ environment
0.7
Common
0.6 genes

0.5 Together
Sib
0.4
Adoptive
P-O = parent-offspring
Adopted- Sib
0.3 Sib = siblings
apart P-O
MZ = monozygotic
0.2
DZ = dizygotic
0.1

0
Adoptive Adopted- Together Together Together
P-O apart Sib P-O DZ MZ
 Figure #7.2: Genetic effects on IQ over the lifespan (Adapted from McGue et al., 1993)
1.0
DZ TWINS MZ TWINS

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
4-6 12-16 Over 20 4-6 12-16 Over 20
years years years years years years
 Figure #7.6: Genetic interplay: Personality and intelligence

Intelligence (gf)

Knowledge
genes Environment Intelligence (gc)
Adult skills

Personality traits
Figure #7.7 On the raise: The Flynn effect in 4 nations (IQ increases across time)

100
Belgium
95

Norway
90

85
Netherlands
80
Great Britain
75

70
1942 1952 1962 1972 1982 1992
 Figure #8.1: Hot intelligences at a glance

1920… 1983… 1985… 1990…

Multiple Practical Emotional

Social intelligence intelligences Intelligence intelligence

Salovey
Thorndike Gardner Sternberg Mayer
Goleman

Do well Bodily
Act wisely Identify
in every- Social
in and manage
day live; Spiritual
interpersonal emotions in
being Musical
relations self and others
streetwise skills
Figure #8.1: Thorndike’s three intelligences and social intelligence

Intelligence

Mechanical Abstract Social

Ability to manage Ability to manage Ability to manage

objects ideas people
 Figure #8.1: Four related problems with the notion of Social Intelligence

Objectively testable?
(“correct” answers)

Different from SOCIAL Different from

Cognitive ability? INTELLIGENCE Personality?

Predicts unique
Variance?
 Figure #8.2: Testing hot intelligence theories: 5 main questions for research

Does it Some people are generally Does it refer to stable

exist? more able than others to… individual differences?

Can it be Same people will always score Can it be quantified through

measured? the same on the same test reliable psychometric tools?

Is it It is better to have high Does it predict real-life criteria

important? than low scores? (e.g., job success, happiness)?

Is it Is it related to intelligence Measured by performance tests

an ability? rather than personality traits? moderately correlated with g?

it is more
Does it tell us anything new, i.e. Does it have incremental validity,
important provide any novel information? predict outcomes beyond IQ?
than IQ?
 Figure #9.1: traits, states, and behaviour

Personality traits Personality traits

(e.g. Extraversion) (e.g. Extraversion)

States External factors States

(e.g., cheerful, (e.g., partner dies) (e.g., sad,
optimistic) pessimistic)

Behaviour Behaviour
(e.g., talkative, (e.g., quiet,
active) passive)
present
absent
 Figure #10.1: Conceptual map of chapter’s contents

introduction definition paradigms

differential
approaches

creativity and creativity and

intelligence personality

testing
creativity

creativity
across fields

summary &
conclusions
 Figure #10.9 Genius and insanity

From top left (clockwise): Schumann, Tchaikovsky, Pollock, Van Gogh, Newton,
Wittgenstein, Poe, and Hemingway, all experienced psychopathological symptoms
 Figure #10.4: creativity and intelligence

Creativity as a form of intelligence

a) IQ creativity Intelligence and creativity as unrelated constructs

Intelligence as a form of creativity

d) creativity IQ

b) creativity IQ Intelligence and creativity as overlapping constructs

e) creativity
Intelligence and creativity as related constructs IQ

c) creativity IQ
Figure #10.3: Sternberg & Lubart’s (1995) model: creativity as a super-set of intelligence

environment

CREATIVITY

intelligence knowledge thinking styles personality motivation

Figure #10.6: Thinking “outside the box”: when intelligent and creative solutions are the
same thing (based on Weisberg & Alba, 1981)

Problem: Above are nine dots arranged in

start here
a set of three rows. Your challenge is to
draw four straight lines which go through
the middle of all of the dots (once) without Solution: think outside the box!
taking the pencil off the paper.
Figure #10.7: Renzulli’s (1986) “three ring” model of giftedness

giftedness

creativity

IQ
task
commitment
 Figure #10.6: Scoring methods for creativity tests

• Originality - each response is compared with all other

responses. Reponses that were given by only 5% of your
group are unusual (1 point), responses that were given by only
1% of your group are unique - 2 points).
• Fluency – quantity regardless of quality (the higher fluency
the higher the originality; this “contamination” problem can be
corrected by using: originality = originality/fluency)
• Flexibility - or use of different categories.
• Elaboration - amount of detail (for Example "a doorstop" = 0
whereas "a door stop to prevent a door slamming shut in a
strong wind" = 2 (one for explanation of door slamming, two
for further detail about the wind).
• Appropriateness – how valuable/useful the response is (rated
by experts)
 Figure #10.6: Salient creativity measures

• Consequences Test (Guilford, 1954) : "Imagine what might

happen if all laws were suddenly abolished? "
• Remote Associates Test (Mednick, 1962) Find a fourth word
which is associated with each of the se three words : A. rat-
blue-cottage; B. Wheel-electric-light; C. surprise-line-birthday
• Unusual Uses Tests (Guilford, 1954) "Find as many uses as
you can think of for A. toothpick; B. brick, C. paper clip
• Word Association Test. (Getzels & Jackson, 1962) Write as
many meanings as you can for the following A. duck, B. sack,
C. pitch
• Creative Test Battery : Torrance Test of Creative Thinking
(TTCT) : Three picture based exercises and 6 word based
exercises (Figural and Verbal). Does a good job of identifying
gifted students.
 Figure #10.1: Defining the creativity syndrome

people environments

products processes

CREATIVE

original useful
 Figure #10.3: Creativity across different paradigms

behavioral biological clinical cognitive developmental educational differential

insight, physiological abnormal cognitive changes teaching personality,

creative correlates behavior processes, throughout styles, intelligence,
thinking brain mental attention, lifespan, assessment assessment,
processes, evolutionary disorders, focus family, methods, testing,
observable functions, observable flexibility, birth-order learning, performance
products, hemispheric mad genius learning gender knowledge
associations activity differences acquisition
 Figure #10.10: The creative personality and the Big Five

Expressive, verbal, active, self-confident

++
Extraversion

Emotionally Open to new

unstable, experiences,
obsessive, Neuroticism Openness intellectually
anxious and + +++ curious,
sensitive aesthetically
sensitive
creative

Unconventional, non-conformist, Antisocial, arrogant,

unstructured, irresponsible selfish, cruel

Conscientiousness Agreeableness
- -
 Figure #10.11: Scoring methods for Alternate Uses Test

• Originality - each response is compared with all other

responses from all of the people you gave the test to.
Reponses that were given by only 5% of the sample are
unusual (1 point), responses that were given by only 1% of
your group are unique (2 points)
• Fluency – quantity regardless of quality (the higher the
fluency, the higher the originality; this “contamination” problem
can be corrected by using the formula: originality =
originality/fluency)
• Flexibility - or use of different categories
• Elaboration - amount of detail (for Example "a doorstop" = 0
whereas "a door stop to prevent a door slamming shut in a
strong wind" = 2 (one for explanation of door slamming, two
for further detail about the wind).
• Appropriateness – how useful (according to experts) the
response is
Figure #11.1: Famous Leaders (seven examples)

Clockwise from top

left: Winston
Churchill, Nelson
Mandela, Albert
Einstein, James
Joyce, Ronald
Reagan, Jean Paul
Sartre, and
Mohandas Ghandi.
 Figure #11.2: Freud (1921) on Leadership

Identification: Prototypicality: Loves the group:

strong affective leader as equal treatment,
ties between representative respect and love by
leader and figure of the the leader to all
group group group members

Process of influence Choice of leader Trust and fairness

Through role model Through similarity Through illusion
(paternal figure) (with the group) (leader loves group)
 Figure #11.1: Internalized authority (Darwin and Freud on Leadership)

Darwin (1809-1882) Freud (1856-1939)

Ancient society
Passion for authority
ruled by
Submissive mind
despotic
Desire to be ruled
male

Leadership
 Figure #11.3 : Stogdill’s (1974) leadership traits in Big Five language

N E O A C

Adjustment, Dominance Intellect Friendliness Responsibility

Emotional balance Sociability intelligence Social awareness Achievement

Independence Social participation creativity Support Initiative

Self-confidence Altruism Personal integrity

Ethical conduct
Adapted from Hogan et al (1994)
Figure #11.5: Personality traits, transformational leadership, and leadership effectiveness

N Personality traits partly determine

transformational leadership style, which
in turn partly determines leadership
effectiveness

.28
E

O Transformational Leadership
leadership effectiveness

.32
A r < .28 omitted

Important predictor

Secondary predictor
C Weak predictor
 Figure #11.4: Big Five correlates of leadership emergence and effectiveness
Meta-analytic findings by Judge et al. (2002)

Leadership Leadership
Emergence Effectiveness

.33
-.24
.24
.33
.16
.24
-.22 .24
.21

N E O A C

Note. Estimated corrected correlation coefficients (number of correlations varied from 17 to 37). N =
Neuroticism, E = Extraversion, O = Openness, A = Agreeableness, C = Conscientiousness
 Figure #12.1: The three pillars of differential psychology

Individual
differences

INTERESTS
ABILITIES PERSONALITY
(and motivation)

Cognitive Traits Affective Traits Conative Traits

 Figure #12.4 Prediger on Holland

data

conventional enterprising

realistic social
things people

investigative artistic

ideas
 Figure #12.5 Big Five, Holland, and Prediger

artistic investigative social enterprising

Openness to Experience Extraversion

Ideas People
Data Things
 Figure #12.5: Stability of interests across the lifespan (based loosely on Low et al, 2005)
0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4
12-14 14-16 16-18 18-22 years 22-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 years
years years years years years years
 Figure #6.3 Predictive validity of cognitive ability across different job types
(based on Hunter, 1983; and Hunter & Hunter, 1984)

biologist
corporate manager
mechanic machinist
teacher metal fabricator
high
truck operator shrimp picker
medium precision
assembler cannery worker

.51 low feeding

.58 .56
(.50) (.57) (.60)
.40 .23
(.54)
DATA THINGS
(information) (objects)

Note. All numbers are correlation coefficients; numbers in brackets refer to training performance;
numbers outside brackets refer to job performance.
Figure #12.1: Trait complexes (based on Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997)

Mathematical reasoning
Visual perception
Realistic Investigative
Gc
Creative thinking
Artistic OPENNESS

Perceptual Speed
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS
Conventional EXTRAVERSION
Enterprising Social
Abilities
PERSONALITY
Interests