Introduction to Research

Methods and the UMI

Research Guidelines

Lawrence Collins Mwebesa

0774 - 360 864
 Session objectives
By the end of the session participants should
be able to:
• Define research
• Describe the characteristics of research
• Describe the research process
• Discuss the research paradigms
• Explain the elements of the UMI research
proposal writing guidelines
 What is Research?
“The systematic collection, analysis and
interpretation of data to answer a certain
question or solve a problem”
“A systematic attempt to provide answers to
questions”
“Seeking solutions to the problems”
• Research seeks to find explanations to
unexplained phenomenon, to clarify the
doubtful facts and to correct the
misconceived facts
 Why conduct research?
• To generate and expand knowledge
• To explain social life by providing reliable
and documented information
• To explore social reality to make further
research possible
• To describe phenomena
• To understand human behaviour and action
• To acquire academic awards
 Why conduct research?
• To develop and test theories of social reality
• To predict social events and developments
• To critique social institutions, structures and
phenomena
• To suggest possible solutions to social
problems
 Types of research
Basic research (pure, traditional)
• Carried out to acquire new knowledge
• It is employed for the purpose of gaining
knowledge that will advance our understanding of
the social world
• It focuses on refuting or supporting theories that
explain how the social world operates, what makes
things happen, why social relations are a certain
way, and why society changes
• Basic research is a source of most new scientific
ideas and ways of thinking about the world
 Basic research-cont’d
Criticism of basic research
• Knowledge produced by basic research
lacks practical applications in the short
term
 Basic research-cont’d
Argument for basic research
• It provides a foundation for knowledge and
understanding that are generalizable to
many policy areas, problems, or areas of
study
• Basic research is the source of tools
(methods, theories and ideas) that applied
researchers use
 Types of research-cont’d…
Applied research
• This type of research is directly related to social
and policy issues and aims at solving specific
problems
 Characteristics of research
1. Demands clear statement of problem
2. Requires a plan
3. Builds on existing data
4. Objectivity
– Conclusions drawn through the interpretation
of results of data
– Analysis should be objective/unbiased
 Steps of Scientific Research
Selection of area no need for
study
Selection of topic answers found
Crude research question
Literature
review
no answer

Refined research question

Research hypothesis, goals and objectives

Study design
Ethical
Population & sampling issues

Variables confounding bias

Research tools

Pilot study

Work plan

Collection of data

Data management

Interpretation

Reporting
The Research Process
 Phases of Research
1. Problem definition (observation, knowedge,
challenge)
2. Developing the topic of the study
3. Developing the purpose and
objectives/hypotheses
4. Literature review
5. Selection of research design, poplation
6. data collection methods, tools and collecting data
7. Data processing (cleaning, entry, analysis and
interpretation)
8. Implications, Conclusions, and Recommendations
Research process/scope (Summary)
• Select your area of study and topic
• Identify and describe research problem
• Literature review to refine your topic &
problem
• Identify objectives and research questions
• Choose approach (methodology)
• Explore your topic (gather Data )
• Process Data
• Write the report
 Nature and Scope of
Research
Philosophy of Research
Lawrence Collins Mwebesa
0774 - 360 864
 What is philosophy?
• Creswell (2013, p. 16) defines philosophy as
“the use of abstract ideas and beliefs that
inform our research”
• Philosophy shapes how we formulate our
problem and research questions to study and
how we seek information to answer the
questions
• Research, whether natural or social, is
grounded in two philosophical perspectives
or worldviews: ontology and epistemology.
 Ontology (nature of reality)
• Ontology: two Greek words: on, which means
"being," and logia, which means "study."
therefore ontology is the philosophical study of
being. It refers to your view of reality and to what
extent it exists 'out there', to be captured through
research.
• How you, the researcher, view the world and the
assumptions that you make about the nature of
the world and of reality
• Its one’s view of reality and its nature
 Epistemology
• It is that branch of philosophy that studies
knowledge.
• Greek words “episteme” and “logos”.
“Episteme” can be translated as “knowledge”
or “understanding” or “acquaintance”, while
“logos” can be translated as “account” or
“argument” or “reason”.
 Cont’d
• View of how one acquires knowledge
• Epistemology: The assumptions that you make
about the best way of investigating the world and
about reality. Plato it is, “an attempt to
understand what it is to know, and how
knowledge is good for the knower”
• How people know what they say they know.
• How should one go about studying the world?
• What is meaningful evidence?
 What is a Research Paradigm?
• A pattern, or a model through which reality
is perceived
• A perspective or frame of reference for
viewing the social world
• Basic beliefs and assumptions about the
world
• Distinctive practice characterized by
specific sets of underlying philosophies and
assumptions about the world
 Research Paradigm…
• Aset of beliefs that represents a worldview
(Guba & Lincoln, 1994) to research for
knowledge about reality.
• Thus, research paradigm is a set of ideas,
beliefs and/or worldview used by a school of
thought or community of researchers to
generate and construct knowledge with which
reality is perceived and interpreted ( Crotty,
1998; Grix, 2010). It is a framework of thought
or beliefs by which reality is interpreted under a
certain philosophy (Christensen et al, 2015)
Ivan & Felix
 Research Paradigms
• A research paradigm is a worldview
about conducting research, which
provides the researchers with an idea
on the choice of research methodology,
methods and research design.
• A paradigm consists of the
following:
Ontology [belief on what constitutes
reality & its form: that reality is
objective & found; OR it is subjective &
constructed], Ivan & Felix
Foundation of Research Paradigms

The building blocks of research are made of:

…

Ivan & Felix

 Paradigm
 Epistemology[ nature, and view of how
knowledge about reality is constructed:
That Truth on reality can be fixed or
multiple, it can objectively or subjectively
be determined, etc],
 Methodology [quantitative or qualitative
or mixed method used to know about
reality],
 Methods [approaches and designs used
to gather data on reality are ontologically
& epistemologically influenced].

 Common paradigms…
• the main philosophical tradition
underpinning qualitative research is
INTERPRETIVISM, while
• the dominant philosophical tradition behind
quantitative research is POSITIVISM.
• Thus, these paradigms differ in their
ontological and epistemological
approaches to reality and how they are
used in research.
 Assumptions of Positivism
• Discovery of universal laws governing the
social world
• A fixed social reality exists that may be
measured and described
• Human behaviour is rational and predictable
• Positivist science can uncover the “truth”
• Reality is perceived uniformly by all
 Assumptions of Positivism
• cont.
Nature is orderly / regular / patterned /
predictable
• All natural phenomena have natural causes
• Reality is governed by immutable and universal
laws (phenomena adhere to social laws)
• Social reality is objective / external of our
minds
• Social reality is independent of our minds
• Social reality exists regardless of our
awareness
•
 Interpretivism
• There is no external reality or objective truth
• Reality is subjective: Social reality is also
“constructed” in the process of social
interaction, Reality is subjective
• Reality is not out there but in the minds of
people,
• Reality Is what people see it to be
• Research aim: to interpret, understand
social life, discover peoples’ meanings
attached to social action.
 DIFFERENCE PHILOSOPHICAL RESEARCH PARADIGMS
POSITIVISM INTERPRETIVISM CRITICAL THEORY
Belief on Reality is objective Reality is subjective and Reality is subjective
reality and is found constructed and constructed on
basis of power
Nature of Objective & Real: Subjective & Truth is many and
Truth There is one fixed Relative: Truth is many constitutes a system
truth that can be (multiple realities or of socio-economic
objectively truth that is power
discovered subjectively
determined)
Reason for To VERIFY, TO EXPLORE & To EMANCIPATE &
research PREDICT & UNDERSTAND EMPOWER people to
GENERALIZE about (provide & gain in- change society
reality, theory depth understanding of radically
verification, or test social reality), theory
hypothesis generation using
inductive approach.
Epistemology What is true? or What can we What is just?
: How do I What can we know understand about the What can we do?
about reality of the reality of the
know what I Knowledge is socially
researched object/ researched
know situation. phenomenon. constructed through
Knowledge found Knowledge
Ivan & Felix created or media, institutions &
via direct socially constructed via society
 Methodological Choices cont.
Positivism: Uses Deductive (Quantitative form )-
logical reasoning from general ideas to specific
conclusions
THEORY (general)

HYPOTHESIS

OBSERVATION

CONFIRMATION (specific hypothesis)

 Methodological Choices cont.

Interpretivism:
Uses Inductive thinking (Qualitative)-

OBSERVATION(start with specific observations)

PATTERNS

HYPOTHESIS

THEORY(form general conclusion)

Features of the Positivistic and interpretivist
paradigms
Positivistic Interpretivistic
• Largely quantitative • Largely qualitative
• Large samples • Uses small samples
• Largely tests
• Largely generates
hypothesis
• Specific / precise data theories
• Rich and subjective data
• High reliability
• Low validity • Low reliability due to small
• Generalization sample
• Deductive logic • High validity
• Prediction • Each case in own right
• Inductive logic
• Interpretation
Research philosophy Summary
Nature of Quantitative Research
Sets researchers apart from reality
Studies reality from the outside
Uses closed methods of data collection
Employs a fixed research design
Nature of Quantitative Research
Captures a still picture of the world
Employs scientific and statistical
methods
Analyses data only after collection
Chooses methods before the study
Produces most useful quantitative data.
Critique of Quantitative Methodology
• Reality can not be defined objectively but
subjectively (to avoid dehumanisation)
• Quantification can not capture the real
meaning of social life
• Use of hypothesis is problematic, it
determines course of research at the on
set and restricts respondents
 Nature of Qualitative Research
• Sets researchers close to reality
• Studies reality from the inside
• Uses open methods of data collection
• Employs a flexible research design
• Analyses data during and after collection
• Chooses methods before and during the study
• Produces most useful qualitative data.
 Strengths of Qualitative research
• Researching people in natural settings
• Sort the cases systematically
• Allows higher flexibility
• Presents a more realistic view of the
world for better understanding of
meanings and experiences
• Stresses interpretations and meanings
• Achieves a deeper understanding of
the respondents 'view of the world
Critique of Qualitative Methodology
• Time consuming
• Risk of collecting to much unnecessary
information from narratives
• There is no clear basis for the validity of data
gathered
• Problems of ethics (entering the lives of
subjects)
• How possible is it to carry out a totally theory-
free research?
• Is it feasible to see through the eyes of actors
and interpret from their value systems?
 BRAINSTORMING

Describe the pros and cons/ limitations of

Quantitative approaches/research and

Qualitative approaches/research
 Triangulation
• Application and combination of several
research methodologies in the study of the
same phenomenon or social issue. These can
be:
• Data triangulation: collecting data from
different sources and at different times on
the same subject for the same study

• Investigator triangulation: use of multiple rather

than single observer
 Triangulation cont
• Theory triangulation: more than one
theoretical scheme, taking a theory from one
“discipline” to explain a phenomenon in
another discipline

• Methodological triangulation: more than

one method, using both qualitative and
quantitative methods of data collection and
analysis
 Is triangulation necessary?
Enables a researcher
• To obtain a variety of information on
the same issue
• To use the strength of each method
to overcome the deficiencies of the
other
• To achieve a higher degree of
validity
The UMI Proposal: Structure

.
 What is a research proposal?
“The academic research proposal is a
structured presentation of what you plan to
do in research and how you plan to do it.”
(Smith, p. 34 ).
• A research proposal is like a blue print of a
building plan before the construction starts
• A good research proposal is based on
scientific facts and on the art of clear
communication
 Meaning of research proposal-
cont’d…
Your proposal describes your proposed plan of work:
• What you intend to study (scope and research questions).
• Why this topic needs to be studied (significance).
• How you intend to study your topic (methodology).
• When you will complete this work (timeline).
 Writing of the Research Proposal
8 central questions:
• What do we need to better understand your
topic?
• What do we know little about in terms of your
topic?
• What do you propose to study?
• What are the settings and people you will
study?
• What methods do you plan to use to provide
data?
• How will you analyze the data?
• What ethical issues, barriers, limitations will
you face?
Purposes of the research proposal

• To organise your ideas

• To convince your audience
• To contract with your client (your
supervisor)
• To meet ethical requirements
 The Structure of UMI
Proposal
• Consists of three chapters

1. Chapter 1: Introduction
2. Chapter 2: Literature review
3. Chapter 3: Methodology
 Chapter 1: Introduction
• Chapter one includes the folllowing
• Introduction
• Background to the study
• Statement of the problem
• Purpose of the study
• Objectives of the study
• Research questions
• Research hypotheses
• Conceptual framework
Chapter 1: Introduction-cont’d…

• Scope of the study

• Significance of the study
• Justification of the study
• Limitations of the study
• Definition of terms and concepts
 Chapter 2: Literature review

• Introduction
• Theoretical review
• Conceptual review
• Actual literature review
 Chapter 3: Methodology
• Introduction
• Research design
• Population of study
• Sample size and selection
• Data collection methods and instruments
• Data analysis
• Reliability and validity
 Time Frame & Work Schedule
The proposal should include the sequence
of
tasks to be performed, the anticipated length
of time required for its completion and the
personnel required
 Budget

• The budget translates project activities

into monetary terms
• It is a statement of how much money will
be required to accomplish the various
tasks
 References
• Babbie,E.(1995).The practice of social
research,Singapore:Wadsworth
• Creswell, J.W. (2013). Qualitative Inquiry
Research Design: Choosing Among Five
Approaches. Los Angeles: Sage
• Neauman,W.L.(2003).Social science research
methods: Qualitative and quantitative
approaches. Boston: Pearson education
• Sekaran,U.(2003).Research methods for
business: Skill building approach. New York:
John Wiley