SIOUORY (A Text Book of Science for Class IX ) bg Sarita AggarwalPublished by: Atul Gupta Saraswati House Pvt. Ltd. 9, Daryaganj, Near Telephone Office, New Delhi-110002 Post Box : 7063 Phone : 43556600 (100 lines), 23281022 ‘ax : 43556688 : delhi@saraswatihouse.com Website : www.saraswatihouse.com Import-Export Licence No. 0507052021 Branches: 1. 48, V Main Road, Chamrajpet, Bengaluru-560018 Phone : (080) 26619880, 26672813 Pax : 26619880 SCO 262, Sector 32D, Chandigarh-160030 Phone : (0172) 2624882 10/34, Mahalakshmi Street, T. Nagar, Chennai-600017 Phone : (044) 24349740, 24346531, 24333508 Fax : 24893508 39/741, Sudarshanam, Karikkamuri Cross Road, Ernakulam South, Kochi-682011 Phone : (0484) 3925288, 3062576 . 4, Sitayan Apartments, Vivekanand Marg, North S.K. Puri, Patna-800013 Phone : (0612) 2570403 » ~ s o © Sarita Aggarwal All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form without the prior written permission of the Author & Publisher. New Edition Price : Rs, 80.00 Printed at Sharda Press Pyt. Ltd., Greater Noida (U.P.)CONTENTS 1. THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE LL. “Discovery of Cell 12, Cellas a Basic Unit of Life 13. Cells and Cell Organelles 14, Structure of a Cell .. 15, Plant and Animal Cells 16. Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells 2. TISSUES IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS .. 23. Epithelial Tissue 24. Muscle Tissues 25. Connective Tissue .. 26. Nervous Tissue . 3. DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD 3.1. Importance of Classification 32. What is the Basis of Classification? 33. Classification and Evolutioy 34. The Hierarchy of Classification (Groups) 35. Five Kingdom Classification. 36. 37. 4, WHY DO WE FALL ILL... 41. Health and Its Failure 42. Disease and Its Causes 43. Infectious Diseases 44, Immune System and Aids 45: Principles of Treatment 4.6. Principles of Prevention 5. NATURAL RESOURCES... 5.1. Types of Natural Resources 52. TheBreath of Life—Air 53. Water—A Wonder Liquid 5.4, Mineral Riches in the Soil 55. Biogeochemical Cycles. co)6. IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES 6.1. Improvement in Crop Yields... 6.2. Crop Production Management . Crop Protection Management .. Storage of Grains . (iti)DISCOVERY OF CELL: Whatare Living Organisms made up of ? CELLAS ABASIC UNIT OF LIFE 1. Unicellularand multicellular organisms 2. Cell Theory 3. Variations in Cells CELLS AND CELL ORGANELLES ‘STRUCTURE OF A CELL: Whatis a Cell made up of? What is the Structural Organisation of a Celt? 1. Plasma or cell membrane (Structure, functions including diffusion, ‘osmosis, changes in cells when kept in different concentrations and active transport) 2. Nucleus 3. Cytoplasm 4. Cell Wall 5. Endoplasmic Reticulum 6. Golgi Apparatus or Golgi Complex . Lysosomes . Mitochondria . Plastids 10. Centrosome 11. Vacuoles 1.5 PLANTAND ANIMAL CELLS 1.6 PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS All living organisms from the smallest to the largest are composed of cells. Cellis the basic structural and functional unit of life. From the microscopic organisms like bacteria and amoeba to large ones like elephants and gigantic trees, all are made up of cells. Some like bacteria and amoeba consist of one cell while others like human beings are composed of millions of cells. 1.1 DISCOVERY OF CELL: WHAT ARE LIVING ORGANISMS MADE UP OF? ‘The first person to see cells was an English scientist, Robert Hooke in 1665. He studied a thin slice of bottle cork under his self-made microscope and observed box- like compartments resembling a honey comb (Fig. 1.1). He called these compartments, the cells. Cell is a Latin word fora little room. These cells were actually just air filled spaces surrounded by dead walls. With the invention of eompound microscope and later the electron microscope, scientists could study the fine ultrastructure of a cell. ‘The Fundamental Unit of Life Fig. 1.1. Cork cells observed by Robert Hooke.Table 1.1. Important Contributions of Biologists Year | Name of the biologist Contributions/Discovery 1665 | Robert Hooke 1. Observed the cells in a thin slice of cork for the first time. 2. The cells were empty and dead. 3. He studied the cells with the help of a primitive micro- scope. 1676 | Leeuwenhoek 1. Used improved microscope and observed nuclei and uni- cellular organisms. 2. Discovered the free cells in the form of bacteria for the first time. 1831 Robert Brown Discovered the nucleus as a characteristic spherical body in the plant cells. 1838 | M.Schleiden (Botanist) Together they gave the cell theory. T. Schwann (Zoologist) 1. All tissues are composed of cells. (Both were German 2. Cell is the basic unit of life. biologists) 1840 | J.B Purkinje Gave the term protoplasm to the living fluid substance of thecell. 1858 | Virchow Further expanded the cell theory. Proposed that all cells arise from pre-existing cells. What are living organisms made up of? ‘To know what are living things made up of, let us perform the following activity: ACTIVITY 1.1 To prepare a temporary mount of an onion bulb peel and study its structure under the microscope. Procedure 1. Cutan onion into smalll pieces. Take a piece of an onion scale leaf so that its concave surface faces'you and snap it backward. 2. Remove the transparent, paper thin layer of cells, seen along the outer edge, with the help of a forcep. 3. Placeit on aslide containing a few drops of iodine. 4. Put the cover slip carefully, wipe off the excess stain and observe under the low and high powers of a compound microscope. Identify the cell wall, cell membrane, nucleus and cyto- plasm. Observations. 1. The cells are elongated and placed edge to edge without any intercellular space. 2. The cells have a cell wall outside the cell membrane. 3. The cytoplasm forms a thin peripheral layer and a large vacuole occupies the centre. ? 4. The nucleus is clearly visible towards the periphery. +2 Saraswati Biology-IX(9 Piece of onion bulb (iv) Drop of water (i) Snap the scale badewards ” 2 (ii) Pull the transparent pee! ‘Steps to take out an onion peel Stages to show the mounting procedure of a slide Fig. 1.2. Steps to prepare a temporary mount of an onion peel. Fig. 3. Cells in onion peel. ‘Study of a Compound Microscope The microscope often used in schools is a evolving nose compound microscope. It magnifies the object or piece specimen seen through it by 100 to 600 times. Let High power. us understand the different parts of this biective microscope Fig. 1). objects The object or specimen (on glass slide) tobe seen Stage is kept on the rectangular platform called the Stage clp stage. The objective lensis presenton the circular {i$ j2phraa disc-shaped structure. The eyepiece lens is attached to the top of body tube through which Minor you see the magnified image. The light is passed and focused on the object with the help of a mirror present below the stage. The sharp image is obtained by focussing the side knobs properly. There are bigger knobs for coarseadjustment and smaller knobs for fine adjustment. "The Fundamental Unit of Life Coarse adjustment screw Fine adjustment Screw ArmMagnification of object= Magnifying power of the objective lens x Magnifying power of eyepiece lens 4.2 CELL AS A BASIC UNIT OF LIFE The above activity can be tried by preparing temporary mounts of peels of onions of differentsizes. « Inall the slides that you make, you would observe the similar structures called cells. Not only onion cells but all organisms around you are made up of cells. © The cell is a basic unit of structure and function in living organisms. The cell is the simplest structure capable of existing as an individual living unit. (Unicellular organisms like Amoeba and Paramoecium etc.) With time cellular organisation gave rise to cell differentiation. Cells acquired different functions and gave rise to organs and organ systems. A multicellular organism has many cells, showing division of labour and various organ systems working in a coordinated manner. 1. Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms Unicellular organisms 1. The cell is large and has various organelles performing all vital functions. 2. A single cell performs all functions necessary for life and is an independent unit. 3. The cell may not exhibit elaborate activities and response to stimuli is very limited. Examples: Amoeba, Paramoecium, Chlamydomonas, Bacteria, Yeast etc. Multicellular organisms 1, The cells of a multicellular organism are comparatively smaller. 2. The cells are differentiated to do specific functions. For example: @ Muscle cells help in contraction and relaxation of body part. @® Nerve cells give response to stimuli. 3. The cells show division of labour and number of cells work together ina co-ordinated manner in a very efficient way. For example, different parts of the human body perform different functions, heart pumps the blood, stomach digests the food, brain receives and transmits the messages etc. Comparison between Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms Unicellular Organism 1. Single cell carries out all the vital functions of life Multicellular Organism 1. Different cells carry out different functions. v . Cell is sufficiently large. 2. Cells are of various sizes, some may be very small, others comparatively much larger, 3. Various organ systems work in coordination and each cell is merely part of an organism. eg. All higher animals and plants Cell may have numerous extensions to increase surface area. e.g. Amoeba, Paramoecium 2. Cell Theory All organisms, multicellular and unicellular, start as a single cell (Zygote in sexual reproduction). This single cell dividesand redivides to produce more cells. This concept was given by the cell theory proposed by Schleiden and Schwann in 1838, The basic features of this theory are: 1. Cell is the basic unit of life. Al tissues are formed of cells. 2. Allcells arise from pre-existing cells. 4 Saraswati Biology-IXaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.1, Plasma or Cell Membrane Structure 1, It is a thin outermost covering or membrane that encloses the contents of acell. It is less than 1/10,000 mm in thickness. 2. Itis made up of lipids and proteins. Functions 1. It separates the contents of cell from its external environment (surrounding medium). 2. It protects the inner cell contents like a mechanical barrier. 3. It is selectively permeable ie,, it allows some ions or substances to pass through but not others. 4. It regulates the movement of ions in and out of the cell. In addition to plasma membrane, plant cells have a rigid cell wall outside the plasma menibrane. How does the movement of substances take place into the cell? How do substances move out of the cell? The movement of substances like water, food, gases (CO, and Q,) and other substances depend mainly on the concentration, gradient and diffusion. The transport of substances through the cell mainly occurs by the following four means: 1. Diffusion ; ‘ ai Canna } Passive...........Donot require energy by the cell 3. Activetransport } Active. Require energy by the cell. ACTIVITY 1.2 To study diffusion of ink in water. Procedure. Take a ghas of beaker /tumbles lf led with water. Puta few drops of ink into the beaker/tumbler and observe. Observation. You would observe that slowly ink diffuses into water. Also the ink molecules get evenly or uniformly spread in water. After sometime the water looks uniform blue in colour. a ———> net movement Tetmovemert (® Simple diffusion through a (© Facilitated diffusion with the permeable membrane help of carrier molecule Fig. 17. Diffusion The Fundamental Unit of Life 71. Diffusion * Itis an important spontaneous process in which the molecules of a substance move from an area of their high concentration to an area of their low concentration. Itisa random movement which occurs when there is difference in the concentration or there is a diffusion gradient. When the molecules get equally distributed, no gradientexists. * In case of a gas, each gas diffuses from the side of high partial pressure to that of lower partial pressure i.e. down the pressure gradient. This takes place during diffusion of gases in cellular iration, * For diffusion to take place through amembrane, the membrane should be fully permeable to the molecules or ions in question. The cell membranes are permeable to both the gases CO, and O, and hence they are able to diffuse freely. * The CO, gets accumulated in high concentration inside the cell while outside of the cell has low concentration of CO,. Hence, CO, moves out of the cell. Similarly, O, enters the cell by the process of diffusion when the concentration of O, inside the cell decreases. 2. Osmosis * Themovementof molecules across a semipermeable or selectively permeable membrane isknown as osmosis. Osmosis can be regarded as a special kind of diffusion of water molecules from a region of their high concentration to their low concentration i.e. froma dilute solution to a concen- trated solution through a semipermeable membrane. (Fig. 1.8) Semipermeable Movemant of water Pure Sucrose from A to B weler solution 9 Melosuloe of pure wator Molecules of sugar Fig. 18. Movement of water molecules through a semipermeable membrane. Experiment to demonstrate Osmosis ~ Take a thistle funnel and tie the semipermeable egg membrane to cover the mouth. — Invert the funnel and fill it partially with the con- centrated sugar solution. — Dip it in distilled water. — Mark the initial level of sugar solution. Observation. The level of solution will rise in the stem of the funnel. (Fig. 1.9) Inference. The egg membrane is semipermeable and allows only water molecules to pass through, not the sugar molecules. The water moves from a dilute solution toaconcentrated Fig: 19. Experiment to demonstrate osmosis. aohition (Upward arrows show the movement of water.) |—+Final level of sugar solution |. Semi-permeable ‘membraneaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Plasma membrane ytoplasm Centriole Nuclear membrane Nucleoplasm ‘Chromatin Nucleus complex \Vacuole Mitochondria Cell wall Fig. 1.17. @ An animal cell under light microscope, and (b) A plant cell under light microscope. The Fundamental Unit of Life 13aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Functions 1. They digest harmful or foreign materials like bacteria, germs and viruses that enter the cell. Hence they are called digestive bags of the cell (Fig. 121). 2. They help in removing unwanted structures within a cell. They digest old worn-out cell organelles and make way for the formation of new ones. 3. They may bring self destruction of a cell by releasing their enzymes within the cell. In such cases. they are called as suicidal bags. They act like suicidal bags in damaged or ageing cells. 8. Mitochondria Structure 1. They are usually sausage-shaped or rod- shaped organelles. Outer Se membrane 2. Each mitochondrion is bounded by two membranes. fee 3. The outer one is smooth, while the inner one membrane is folded into finger-like projections called ati cristae (Fig, 1.22). 4. The cristae increase the surface area of in- ner membrane and provide abundant space for metabolism. 5. Mitochondria contain a number of enzymes required for oxidation of food. Fig. 1.22. Mitochondria Functions . They are the sites of cellular respiration or oxidation of food. rey . Also known as power houses because during oxidation, energy released is stored in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) molecules. 3. ATP molecules are used for various functions of cell like, to make new cell components, me- chanical work, growth and development etc. 9. Plastids Plastids are organelles which are found in plant cells only. Structure 1. They are surrounded by two membranes. 2. Theyare of three types: Two ‘membranes Grana (contain @ Leucoplasts, ae © Chromoplasts, and c roma (© Chloroplasts. (gel-like matrix) Fig. 1.23, Plastid (Chloroplast) ‘The Fundamental Unit of Life 17aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.3. The genetic material (nuclear material) isin the form Capsule or ofa single circular chromosome. cus — slime layer 4. This chromosome is present in the cytoplasm in a Coll wall nuclear region called nucleoid. Ree They lack all membrane bound organelles and it Single circular indicates the primitive nature of prokaryotic cells. Gtronosome . They appeared about 3500 million years ago. oe . The group prokaryotes comprises of bacteria and cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria were earlier called blue green algae. Fig. 1.27. A generalised typical structure of a prokaryotic cell (bacterium). 2. Eukaryotic Celis An eukaryotic cell possesses a definite true nucleus, bound by a double membrane. The genetic material is in the form of more than one chromosome present in the nucleus. The cytoplasm has a number of membrane bound organelles like mitochondria, chloroplasts etc. The organelles are specialised to perform specific functions. An eukaryotic cell is much more complex than a prokaryotic cell. Eukaryotes appeared about 2000 million yearsago and probably evolved from prokaryotes. Eukaryotes include protozoa, fungi, green plants and animals. ‘The differences between a prokaryotic cell and an eukaryotic cell are given in Table 1,7. 2 xno Flagellum Noag@sonpe Cell wall of, adjacent cals Middle lamella Nuclear membrane Nusleus | Chromatin rework Nucleotus —L1_1} Nuclear pore Rough endoplasmic reticulum, Tenopiast Vacuole Cell sap ‘Smooth endoplasmic Mitochondria reticulum Chloroplast Grana Dictyosome Fig, 1.28. Ultrastructure of an eukaryotic cell (plant cell) under electron microscope. 21aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.3. Cell without membrane bound nudeus. 4. An organelle with cristae. IV. Match the following 1. Mitochondria @ Secretion 2. Golgi complex (®) Digestive bags 3. Lysosomes © ATP 4. Centrosome @ Celldivision V. Write True (T) or False (F) 1. The cell wallis living. RER helps in synthesis of proteins. Nucleoid is a part of prokaryotic cell. ‘Nucleolus is present in the cytoplasm of cell. Lysosomes can act like suicidal bags. Vi. Differentiate between the following 1. Animal cell and Plant cell 2. Prokaryotic cell and Eukaryotic cell 3. Cell wall and Cell membrane 4. Chloroplasts and Mitochondria Vil. Short Answer Questions 1. Name three major functional regions of the cell. 2. What is the cell membrane made up of? 3. List two important functions of cell wall. 4, Name important parts of a nucleus. 5. What is the chromatin material made up of? 6. How many types of endoplasmic reticulum are found in a cell? 7. Who gave cell theory? 8. What are dictyosomes? 9. What is the role of mitochondria in a cell? 10. What would happen to the life of a cell if there was no Golgi apparatus? 11. Which organelle is known as the powerhouse of the cell? Why? 412, Where do the lipids and proteins constituting the cell membrane get synthesised? 13. What is osmosis? Vill. Long Answer Questions Explain the structure of an animal cell under electron microscope. Give structure and functions of mitochondria—Golgi apparatus and nucleus. How is a bacterial cell different from a human cell? Explain various types of plastids and their functions. What are lysosomes? What are their significance? A 2 s. 4. 5aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.B. Collenchyma Structure (Fig. 2.6) 1, Collenchyma consists of somewhat elongated cells with corners which may be circular, oval or polygonal in a cross-section. 2. They have thin cell walls but are irregularly’ together. 3. These corners are thickened due to extra deposition of cellulose and pectin. 4, There is no intercellular space between the cells. 5. Like parenchyma, they are living cells and have a distinct nucleus and dense cytoplasm, 6. They often contain chloroplasts. ickened at the corners where number of cells join (@) Gollenchyma celis (in cross-section) (0) Longitudinal section of collenchyma cells Fig. 2.6. Collenchyma cells. Location ‘They are present below the epidermis in dicot stems and in the petiole and midrib of dicot leaves. “They are absent in dicot root, and in monocot stems, roots and leaves.” Functions 1. Their primary function is to give mechanical support to herbaceous plants and leaves. 2. They allow easy bending and flexibility to the organ in which they occur. 3. Since they contain chloroplasts, they also manufacture sugar and starch. C. Sclerenchyma Structure (Fig. 2.7) 1. Unlike parenchyma and collenchyma, sclerenchyma cells when mature are dead and without any proto- plasm. 2. They are long, narrow and thick walled cells with tapered ends. 3. They have thick walls due to deposition of a water- proof material called lignin. 4. Often depositions on the walls are so heavy that they almost fill the entire cell and so the cell cavity or lumen (a) sclerenchyma cols in eroes-ecton is nearly absent. Fig. 27. Sclerenchyma cells. \Misiues in Plantsand Animals 33aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Thick wall ‘Multiple perforated Pits Porous end wall Pits on the: Cell wall we YL Call membrane % [= Nucleus / T= cytoplasm * |= Waewble (@)Tracheid (6) Pited vessel (©) Xylem parenchyma —_(d) Xylem sclerenchyma (fibre) Fig. 2.10, Components of xylem. Structure (Fig. 2.10) 1, Except xylem parenchyma, all other xylem cells are dead and have thick lignified walls. 2. In xylem tissues, vessels are important structures. A vessel is not one cell but series of cells placed end to end with their transverse walls dissolved. “A vessel is like a series of water-pipes forming a ong pipe line”. They appear as elongated tube like structures with thick lignified walls. 3. Tracheids, on the other hand, are individual cells. They are usually longer and narrower than vessels with tapering end walls. They are also arranged in the form of a tube. Only xylem parenchyma are living cells and have thin cell walls. 4. Xylem sclerenchyma are like fibres. They have elongated cells with tapering ends. They are dead cells with thickened cell walls. Functions len has two basic functions in plants: 1. Totransport water and minerals upwards from roots to leaves. 2, Togivemechnical support to the plant. ~Tracheids and vessels.. help to transport water and minerals. ~Parenchyma..... _store food and help in lateral conduction of water. —Fibres, mainly supportivein function. B. Phloem Phloemis basically for the translocation of prepared food material from the leaves tovarious parts of the plant. Itis a complex tissue, composed of four types of cells: @ Sieve tubes (i) Companion cells (ii) Phloem parenchyma (ie) Phloem fibres Structure (Fig. 2.11) 1. Except phloem fibres, phloem cells are living cells with cytoplasm. 2. Sieve tubes are long tube like structures formed by end to end fusion of cells. The transverse walls are perforated by pores and look like sieve piates. ‘The sieve tubes donot have a nucleus but have a thin layer of cytoplasm. Though they lack a nucleus, they are living. 3. Companion cells are specialised living parenchyma cells associated with sieve tubes. 4. Phloem parenchyma are thin walled living parenchymatous cells. 5. Phloem fibres are similar in structure to xylem fibres but have thicker walls. Tissues in Plants and Animals 37aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.3. Elongated, cylindrical and un- branched. 4. Alternate light and dark bands or striations. 5. Multinucleate myofibrils with peripherally located nucleus. 6, Intercalated discs are absent. 3. Spindle-shaped and tapering at the ends. 4, No striations. 5. Uninucleate myofibrils with centrally located nucleus. 6. Intercalated discs are absent. 3. Elongated, cylindrical and branched. 4, Faint regular striations. 5. One or two nucki in between two intercalated discs. 6, Intercalated discs* are present. 7. Voluntary muscles. 7. Involuntary muscles. 7. Involuntary muscles. 8. Undergo rapid contractions, | 8. Undergo slow and rhythmic | 8. Undergo continuous and thy- get tired easily. contraction, do not get thmic contractions and relaxa- fired easily. tions, without getting fatigued, * Intercalated discs are zig-zag special thickenings present in cardiac muscles. They are the places of fusion where originally the cell membranes of adjoining cells were present. 2.5 CONNECTIVE TISSUE ‘Structure A composite tissue, it has following three basic components: 1. Cells. Living part, loosely spaced, embedded in the matrix. 2. Fibres. Non living part, several types, scattered in-between the cells. 3. Matrix. Basic ground tissue, may be jelly-like, fluid, dense or rigid. Matrix decides the nature and function of the tissue. Location 1._Itis widely spread throughout the body. 2. Present in-between different tissues and organs. 3. Present in the form of bone and cartilage and as a fluid connective tissue present in the form of boneand lymph throughout the body. Functions 1. Basically a binding and packaging tissue. 2. Also has many other important functions like storing fat, transporting substances etc. depend- ing on the location of the tissue. Table 2.9. Types of Connective Tissue ‘A. Connective c Adipose issue proper tiguncas (Matrix soft) Tendons Connective Tissue B. Supportive Bone connective tissue (Matrix solid or ‘semi solid) Cartilage C. Fluid connective Bloc. tissue (Matrix in the form of liquid) Lymph ‘Tissues in Plants and Animals 41» rs a 42 SOME IMPORTANT CONNECTIVE TISSUES Areolar Connective Tissue © The basic homogenous connective tissue, found be- tween the skin and muscles, around blood vesselsand nerves and in the bone marrow. ‘* Fills space inside the organs like packaging tissue. * Supports intemal organs and helps in repair of the #5 tissues. Adipose Tissue * Modified form of areolar tissue found below the skin in the dermis region, around kidney, heart and eye- balls. ' «Stores fat and actsas an insulator (prevents heat loss). * Also acts as a source of energy reserve. © Cells are filled with fat globules. Ligaments © Jain bone to bone at the joints. ¢ Highly elastic and have considerable strength. Contain very little matrix and loose network of yel- Jow elastic fibres. Teadons Connects bone to muscles. @ Strong butinelastic, the flexibility is limited. * Consist of white fibrous collagen fibres. Bone # ZEN Se + Form the framework and skeleton of the body. Sh tne ne * Strong and non-flexible connective tissue. Sf frre oe ‘* Matrix is solid and hard composed of calcium and “ae ee eee phosphorus salts. MO (coral (contain fee * Long bonehasa number of Haversian canal systems. ego ‘* Bone cells called osteocytes are arranged around Haversian canals. . Cartilage © Have widely spaced cells called chondrocytes. Hard but flexible connective tissue. oa a © Matrix is solid or semi-solid, does not contain much. ©. = calcium. e@ (carlage cet) © Present at the end of bones, at the tip of nose, ear, trachea and larynx (voice box).Table 2.10. Differences between Bone and Cartilage 1, Strong and non-flexible tissue. 1. Strong but flexible tissue. 2. Matrix contains deposition of calcium. 2. Matrix does not contain depositions of calcium. 3, Matrix is arranged in concentric circles. 3. Matrix is uniform, not in concentric circles. 4. Along bone has a number of Haversian | 4. Does not have Haversian canal canal systems. systems. 5, Each lacuna has one bone cell. 5. Each lacuna has 2-3 cartilage cells. 6. Bone cells make connection through 6. There are no canaliculi. fine canaliculi. 7. Blood Blood is a fluid connective tissue that circulates in the whole body. It consists of a fluid matrix called blood plasma in which float the blood cells called blood corpuscles. There are three types of blood corpuscles (Table 2.11). 1. Redblood corpuscles (RBC) or Erythrocytes 2. White blood corpuscles (WBC) or Leucocytes 3. Blood platelets or Thrombocytes Table 2.11. Types of Blood Corpuscles 0% Ore 1. Irregularly shaped small fragments. 2. Often without nucleus. 3. Colourless. 4. Help in clotting of blood. Functions 1, Blood transports nutrients, hormones, water and various chemicals to the tissues and trans- ports excretory waste products from the tissues to liver and kidney. 2. Red blood cells transport oxygen to the tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs. 3. White blood cells help to fight against diseases. (Tissues in: Plants and Animals 434, Blood platelets help in blood clotting. 5. Blood, being a circulating fluid, distributes the heat and helpsin keeping the body temperature constant. 2.6 NERVOUS TISSUE Nervous tissue is made up of million of nervecells called neurons. The neurons are highly specialised cells. Brain, spinal cord and nerves are all composed of neu- rons. Structure Anneuron consists of following parts: (@ Cell body orCyton — Has a nucleus and cyto- plasm. — Cytoplasm has Nissle's gran- ules (i) Dendrites — Fine branched fibres arising outof cell body. — Numerous innumber. ~ Carry impulses towards the cell body. (iii) Axon ~ Single elongated fibre, also called nerve fibre. Generally unbranched. ~ Ends in many end fibres. Conducts nerve impulse away from cell body. Functions 1. Specialised to receive and transmit messages in the body. Fig. 212. Structure of nerve cell or neuron. 2. Dendrites receive the impulseand axon take the im- pulse away from the cell body. Table 2.12. Differences between Dendrites and Axon ‘Dendrites 1. Short, numerous and branched. 1. Long, generally unbranched may be one or two. 2. Carry impulses towards the cell body | 2. Carry impulses away irom cell body of neuron. of neuron IMPORTANT POINTS 1. A multicellular organism is composed of millions of cells. A group of cells having similar structure and function is called a tissue. 2. Plant tissues are primarily classified into two groups—meristematic and 3. The meristematic tissues have the capability of cell division and could be apical, lnnareliaci intercalary in position. 44 Saraswati Biology-IX2x : 10. i. 2. 13. uu 15. The permanent tissues a differentiated, they do not divide and perform specific functions. They could be further classified into simple and complex tissues. Parenchyma are thin walled, living cells present in all soft parts of the plant. Their main function is the storage of food to maintain turgidity of cells. ».. Collenchyma are living cells with cell walls thickened at the corners by deposition of cellulose and pectin. They provide mechanical support to the plant. . Sclerenchyma are dead cells with highly lignified walls. They providegood mechanical strength. . Cork isa protective tissue that forms the outer covering of mature woody stems and roots. It consists of layers of dead cells with suberised cell walls. 1. Complex tissue consists of xylem and phloem. Xylem and phloem form the conducting tissues of plant. Xylem commonly called wood, conducts water and minerals from roots to leaves. Itconsists of tracheids, vessels, xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma. Of these, all are dead cells except xylem parenchyma. Phloem cells translocate prepared food materials from leaves to different parts of the plant. It is composed of sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres. Of these all are living cells except phloem fibres. The animal tissues are classified into four major types—epithelial, muscular, connective and nervous. Epithelial cells are closely packed, without intercellular spaces. They could be squamous, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated or glandular, depending on their shape and function. Muscle celis have the capability to contract and relax. They could be striated, unstriated and cardiac. Connective tissue has three basic components: (@ Matrix, the ground substance in which are suspended, (ii) the cells, and (iii) fibres. 16. Bones and cartilage form the skeleton of the body. Ligaments connect bones to bones while tendons connect muscles to bones. 17. Blood isa fluid connective tissue consisting of blood plasma in which float the blood—cells ted blood cells, white blood cells and blood platelets. 18. Nervous tissue consists of millions of neurons. A neuron hasa cell body, dendrites and axon. They are specialised cells to receive and conduct sensations. KEY TERMS Apical meristem —: The undifferentiated tissue at the root and the shoot tip, responsible for increase in length of plant. Axon : Along, generally unbranched process of a neuron. Basement membrane ; A non-cellular layer on which lower most layer of epithelial cells rest. Chondrocytes + Another name of cartilage cells. Collagen fibres : Another name of white fibres. Strong and inelastic fibres. Companioncells _: Specialised parenchyma cellsassociated with sieve tube. A part of phloem tissue. Cork : Waterproof tissue presentat the outer surface of mature woody stems and stems have highly suberised dead cells. Tissues in Plants and Animals 45Dendrites Erythrocytes Intercalated discs Leucocytes Ligaments Lignin Matrix Neuron Osteocyte Meristematic tissue Meristem Pectin Phloem Isodiametric cells ° Sieve tubes Stomata Tendons Tracheids Vascular bundle Vessel Xylem |. Multiple Choice Question: Tick (V) the correct answer: : Short, branched processes of a neuron. : Also called red blood corpuscles or RBC. : Zigzag special thickening present in the cardiac muscles only. + Also called white blood corpuscles or WBC. : A typeof connective tissue. Join bones to bones at joints. : Waterproof chemical deposited on thick walls of sclerenchyma cells. : Jelly-like ground substance present in connective tissue. Contains cells and fibres of connective tissue. : Another name for nerve cell. Basic functional unit of nervous system. : Another name of bone cells. + Tissue that consists of undifferentiated, actively dividing cells. : Same as meristematic tissue. : Waterproof thickening material present atthe comers of collenchyma cells. : A typeof complex tissue translocates prepared food material from leaves to various parts of the plant. : Cells which are more or less equally expanded on all sides, for example parenchyma cells. : A part of phloem tissue. Long tube like structures formed by end to end fusion of cells. :, Minute openings in the epidermis of leaf. Have two kidney-shaped guard cells. : A typeof connective tissue. Join skeletal muscles to bone. : Long, narrow cells with tapering end walls. A component of xylem tissue. : Refers to conducting tissues of the plant. Consists of xylem and phloem. : Main component of xylem tissue. A vessel is formed by series of cells placed end toend with their transverse walls dissolved. : A typeof complex tissue. Conducts water and minerals upwards from root toleaves. REVIEW QUESTIONS s 1. Which of the following are undifferentiated, actively dividing cells? (@) Parenchyma (©) Sclerenchyma Cork cells have @) Lignin (c) Cutin @ Xylem (©) Meristematic 46 Collenchyma differ from sclerenchyma in (@) Having thick cell walls (©) Being living at maturity 1 — ® Collenchyma o CO — @ Meristematic Oo o (®) Being flexible oa 1 —— @ Being strong oa CO — ® Suberin o Ol @ Pectin o Which cells help in increasing the length of the plant by undergoing cells division? Cl — ® Phioem ( ~— @ Sclerenchyma ooaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.IV. Match the following Columns. PP ae eee 10. Column 1 Column I Parenchyma @ Intercalated discs Collenchyma (®) Lignin Sclerenchyma (© Attached to skeleton Xylem (@ Haversian canal system Phloem (©) Thin flat cells ‘Squamous epithelium Axon Striated muscles @ Pectin Cardiac muscles (h) Store food Neuron (@ Translocate prepared food Bone ) Conduct water and minerals. V. Write True (T) or False (F) for the following statements 10. Xylem is a type of simple tissue. Collenchyma often contain chloroplasts. Guard cells are living and contain chloroplasts. Suberin is present in the cell walls of parenchyma. Tracheids are dead cells. Phloem fibres and phloem parenchyma are dead cells. Cartilage cells are present in fluid filled cavities called lacunae. ‘Tendons have large number of yellow elastin fibres. White blood cells have a distinct nucleus. Cell body of a neuron contains nucleus and cytoplasm. VI. Name the following ‘Tissue that forms the inner lining of our mouth. Tissue that connects muscle to bone in humans. ‘Tissue that transports food in plants. ‘Tissue that stores fat in our body. Connective tissue with a fluid matrix. ‘Tissue present in the brain. Vil. Complete the tableVIll. Differentiate between the following Meristematic and Permanent tissue Simple and Complex tissue Apical and Lateral meristems Parenchyma and Sclerenchyma Parenchyma and Collenchyma Xylem and Phloem Striated and Unstriated muscles Tendons and Ligaments Bone and Cartilage Red blood cells and White biood cells Dendrites and Axon Pa sexanbene 1X. Short Answer Questions 1. Name the regions of plant which contain parenchyma cells. 2. Where are collenchyma cells found in a plant? 3, What are the functions of parenchyma tissue? 4, Where are stomata found? What is their function? 5. Name various types of cells present in xylem. 6. What are the basic functions of xylem in a plant? 7. Name various components of phloem. 8, What is the role of epidermis in plants? 9. Why does cork act as a protective tissue? 10, Where is cuboidal epithelium found? Ti. How are unstriated muscles structurally different from striated muscles? 12, What is the role of haemoglobin? 13, List four important functions of blood. 14, What are dendrites? Where are they found? X. Long Answer Questions 1. Explain various types of simple tissues in a plant. 2, Name the conducting tissues of a plant. Explain their structure and function. 3. Explain the structure and functions of cork cells. 4, Draw well labelled diagram of phloem. Explain its various components. 5, List and give important features of different types of epithelial tissue. 6. How are striated muscles different from unstriated muscles? 7. What do you understand by supportive connective tissues? Give examples and explain. 8. Explain structure of a neuron. 9. List various functions of blood. (0. Name different types of blood cells. Give their structure and function. "ANSWERS — LL@ 20 30 4.0 50 6@ 72@ 8.) 9 @ BO 1@ 2w® BO Www 16.0 16.) 17. © 8. 19. @) 20.@ 2.@ 2 2B.@ 24.) 25. (d) 50 ~—HL. 1. cellulose 2. do not have 3. Sclerenchyma 4, suberin 5. Phloem fibres 6. basement membrane 7. Striated muscles 8. Haversian canals. <9._Ligaments, 10. blood clotting. ML 1. Lignin 2. Parenchyma 3. Cuticle 4, Sieve tubes 5. Glia 6. Intercalated discs 7. Chondrocytes 8. Haemoglobin 9. Axon 10. Dendrites Nv. Column I Column I 1. Parenchyma (h) Store food 2. Collenchyma @) Pectin 3. Sclerenchyma () Lignin | 4, Xylem @ Conduct water and minerals 5. Phloem @ Translgcate prepared food 6. Squamous epithelium, (© Thin flatcells 7. Striated muscles (c) Attached to skeleton 8. Cardiac muscles (@) Intercalated dise 9. Neuron () Axon 10. Bone @) Haversian canal system. Vv. LF or aT 4 5. 6.F 17 &F oT 10.7 Vi. 1. Squamous epithelium 2 Tendors 3. Phloem 4. Pelipose__ 5. Blood 6. Nervous Vil. 1. Parenchyma 2. Sclerenchyma 3. Phloem og \Wi8sues in’ Plants and Animals 513.7 ‘ANIMAL KINGDOM (KINGDOM ANIMALIA) 1. Phylum Porifera Sponges) 2 Phylum Cnidaria (Coelenterata) 9. Phylum Platyhelminthes a Phylum Nematoda Allaround us there is an enormous variety in the living forms. The present day organismsare the end product of about 3.5 billion years of organic evolution on earth. The evolution resulted in a great variety of species. Out of all the species that are known to have lived, only a few are in existence today. The rest have become extinct and only some are preserved in the form of fossils. Since the number of organisms is vast, there has alwaysbeen a need to divide the larger groupsinto smaller groups. The grouping together of similar objects according to their common features (after studying the similarities and differences) is called as classification. The classification of organisms is nothing but arranging the organisms into groups or sets on the basis of similarities and differences, which show their relationships. The organisms are placed in certain well-marked categories which not only make the study easier but also indicate specific relationships. 52These categories in the descending sequence are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. As the number of known species increased, new categories have been introduced by adding prefix super or sub to the existing categories. 3.1 IMPORTANCE OF CLASSIFICATION Classification: The method of arranging and grouping of organisms in various divisions is called classification. Taxonomy: A related discipline, taxonomy deals with the identification and classification of the organisms. It is also known as the science of classification. Advantages of Classification 1. Itmakes the study of such an enormous diversity of organisms easy. 2. Ithelps to understand the placement of various life forms at a glance. 3. Ithelps to understand the resemblances and relationships among different groups of organism. Itmakes the comparisons between groups easier. 4, Itservesas a base for the development of other biological sciences. For example, whether it is biogeography (geographical distribution of plants and animals), ecology (inter-relationships) of organisms and environment or behavioural sciences, accurate identification and classification are very important. 5. Many disciplines of applied biology like agriculture, public health and environmental biology depend heavily on the exact identification and classification of an agricultural pest, a vector, a pathogen and a component of an ecosystem. 3.2 WHAT IS THE BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION? Biologists from early times have made simple attempts to classify the organisms. Table 3.1 gives us a brief idea about the contribution of some biologists. Classification is like arranging the book titles in the library or the words in a dictionary. — Biological classification aims at sorting living organisms into small comprehensible groups. — Itmakes the comparisons between the groups of organisms easier. — Itrecognises the species as the basic taxonomic unit. — Ikdescribes the species as completely as possible. There are two main systems of classification 1. Artificial system of classification 2. Natural system of classification 1 Artificial system of classification 1. The dassification was based on a limited range of distinguishing characteristics. These were generally superficial resemblances and differences. 2. Animals were classified into two categories on the basis of their flying ability: @ Animals that can fly © Animals that cannot fly Unrelated animals like butterflies, bats and birds were grouped together. 3. Plants were classified on the basis of height only into different groups like herbs, shrubs and trees. Diversity in the Living World = z 53aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Binomial Nomenclature Many scientists made several attempts in the field of nomenclature. But the most workable and most acceptable system of nomenclature was proposed by Carolus Linnaeus, and so he is also considered as the Father of Taxonomy. He proposed that the name of every organism is composed of two components, in which, the first word is called the Generic name and second one is the Specific name. Because a name has two components, this kind of naming is called binomial nomenclature. Important Features of Binomial Nomenclature 1. Scientific name of every organism has two components. First word is the name of genus called generic name and second word is the name of species called specific name. For example: The scientificname of man is Homo sapiens Homo sapiews Genericnamé ific name Gignifies name of genus) (Gignifies name of species) 2, These scientific names are unique and are followed all over the world. 3. These namesare guided by a set of rules stated in the International Code of Nomenclature. * Scientific name should be written in italics if printed and underlined if hand-written. © Generic name should begin with a capital letter but specific name should be written in small letters only. 4, Binomial nomenclature was given by Carolus Linnaeus, who is considered to betthe Father of Taxonomy. 3.4 THE HIERARCHY OF CLASSIFICATION (GROUPS) Anumber of scientists tried to give a framework of classification. Contribution of some of the scientists isas given below. 1. Carolus Linnaeus 1758; Gave two kingdom classification— : Recognised only two groups of organisms plants and animals and placed them in Plant Kingdom and Animal Kingdom. With time it was clear that certain organisms did not fit in either plants oranimals. Accordingly, newkingdoms wereadded and finally Whitakker in 1969 gave the five kingdom classification. 2. Emst Haeckal (1894): Added third Kingdom Protista. 3. Robert Whitakker (1969) : Added fourth Kingdom Monera for bacteria and fifth Kingdom 4. Carl Woese (1977) ». Divided Kingdom Monera into Archaebacteria and Eubacteria. , Units of Classification The living organisms are grouped together by certain similarities, that show how one group isrelated toanother and how the modem day organisms have evolved. The framework of classification is in a hierarchical order in which groups are arranged in a definite order from higher to lower categories. 56* The categories used in classification are: 1. Kingdom, 2. Phylum (for animals)/Division (for plants), 3. Class, 4. Order, 5.Family, 6. Genus, 7. Species. * Kingdom is the highest category of classification and species the lowest. ‘* From kingdom as we go down in categories, the groups keep becoming smaller and smaller. Kingdom : Includes all organisms that share a set of distinguished common characters. Example: Plant Kingdom, Animal Kingdom, Kingdom Protista, Kingdom Monera, Kingdom Fungi. Phylum: Each kingdom is divided into diffe- rent phyla. Each phylum has organ- isms related to each other by certain common characters. Example: Animal Kingdom has number of phyla. Phylum chordata has all ani- mals that possess notochord at some stage in life. Class; Each phylum is further divided into a number of classes, which are related by some common features. Example: Class Amphibia, Class Reptilia, Class Mammalia and many other classes are put together in Phylum Chordata. Order: Each class may have a number of or- ders. Members of an order have some ‘common characters. Example: Class Mammalia has orders like car- nivora, herbivora, primates etc. Kingdom: Animalia +ya ae §) Tiger LionFamily — : Anorder may have anumber of families. Example: Order Camivora has family—Felidae Family, Family: Felidae Canidae and other families. Genus _ : Each family isdivided into a number of genera (plural. — Members of each genus are similar to each other. Example: Family Felidae has Genus Felis, Genus Panthera, Ms Species : A Genus comprises a number of species. A ty species is the basic unit of classification and Lion evolution. — A species includes all organisms that are similar, able to interbreed and produce fer- tile offsprings. — A species is recognised by a scientific name. Lon Example: Scientific name of lion is Panthera leo. ‘Species: Panthera leo Fig. 3.1 Units of classification. ‘Two Kingdom Classification This is an older system of classification. It was introduced by Carolus Linnaeus in 1758. He recognised only two groups of organisms—plants and animals, and placed them in plant king- dom and animal kingdom respectively. 1. Plantkingdom. It included all organisms that showed following features: + Organisms which were stationary ie. fixed at a place. + Prepared their own food by trapping sun's energy. * Had cells with cell wall. ‘* Had chlorophyil in the chloroplasts i. to make their food. + Some could grow indefinitely. 2. Animal Kingdom. It included all organisms with following features: * Organisms which could move about. * Could not prepare their food and depended on other plants and animals for food. + Did not have a cell wall in the cells. + Cells did not have chlorophyll. * Bodies stop growing after attaining a certain size. 58 Saraswati Biology-IXaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.A summary of classification based on above features is as given below: Classification of Plants Plants Do not have Have differentiated differentiated plant body plant body é Without specialised With vascular vascular tissue tissue 1. Thallophyta | 2. Bryophyta Do not produce seeds Produce seeds | Phanerogamae 3. Pteridophyta | Bear naked seeds Bear seeds | inside fruits 4. G \ ymnoeperms 5 ai Have seeds Have seeds with two with one Cotyledons Cotyledon Dicots ‘Monocots 1, THALLOPHYTA (Thallus ~ undifferentiated ; phyta - plant) 1. Theplantbody is notdifferentiated into stem, rootand leaves. 2. This undifferentiated plant body is called a thallus. 3. The vascular system is absent. There are no conducting tissues. 4. The reproductive organs are single-celled and there is no embryo formation. 5. The plants in this group are predominantly called algae. 6. The plants are predominantly aquatic. Algae You must have noticed a bluish-green scum in a pond, stagnant water or in overhead tanks that have not been cleaned for long. These are generally algae (singular - alga). Algae can be found in freshwater, in sea, on damp —* soil and even in snow. Diversity in the Living World 63Important Features 1. Theyaregreen thallophytes containing greenpigment chlorophyll. In many algae the green colouris hiddenby otherpigments. Thus there may beblue-green, brown, red oreven purplealgae. (On the basis of these pigments, algae have been further classified into different groups. . Algae are autotrophic plants i.e. manufacture their own food with the help of chlorophyll. 3, Their cell walls are made up of cellulose. 4, They are mainly aquatic though some forms grow attached to rocks, on the bark of trees and on the surface of moist soil. . They may be unicellular or multicellular. The multicellular forms are generally ribbon like and filamentous Examples: Chlamydomonas (unicellular alga), Ulothrix, Cladophora, Uea, Spirogyra. Fig. 36) This group also includes blue-green algae—the cyanobacteria. | fe (a) Chlamydomonas Ca Surface (Uuniceliular alga) (b) Ulothrix —_(c) Cladophora (Uva ——_(e) Spirogyra Fig. 3.6. Examples of algae (Thallophyta). 2. BRYOPHYTA It includes mosses and liverworts. After some showers of rain, the bark of trees, old damp walls, moist ground, and edges of drains are often covered with a bright green carpet. It looks like algal scum from a distance, but if you go near and observe carefully, you will ind that it consists of tiny green plants. These are the mosses. The moss stick on which the climbers twin around is also made up of moss. Important Features 1. Bryophytes are the simplest multicellular land plants. They are called amphibians of the plant Kingdom. 2. They are very small plants and do not have true leaves and roots. Plant body is commonly differentiated to formstem like and leaf like structures. 3. They have thin, branched, root-like structures called rhizoids which anchor them to the ground. 4, The plant body may be flat as in liverworts (resembling the lobes of a liver) or as tiny leafy structures on stalks, as in mosses. Moss plant is just about an inch long. 5. They have no specialised tissues like xylem and phloem for conduction of water and other substances from one part of the body to another.6. The green structure that we see, is the gametophyte. It isa dominant phase of life-cycle. 7. Bryophytes are found in damp shady places. Examples: Mosses and liverworts. Funaria (moss), Riccia and Marchantia are liverworts. Fig. 3.7) Thallus like body ‘ Thallus Rhizoids (6) Riccia (¢) Marchantia Fig. 3.7. Examples of bryophyta. 3. PTERIDOPHYTA They hive well developed stems, roots and leaves and are more advanced than bryophytes. The most familiar pteridophytes are the beautiful green ferns grown in every garden. They are abundant in forests and hill stations. They grow best in moist, shady and humid tropical conditions. Important Features 1. They are basically land plants that grow well in moist, shady and cool places. 2. Theplant body is differentiated into true roots, stems and leaves. 3. They have well-developed specialised tissue for conduction. Xylem transports water and phloem distributes the food. 4. The green leafy structure that we see is the sporophyte. Itis the dominant phase of life-cycle. Examples: All types of ferns like Dryop- teris, Adiantum, Marsilea etc. (Fig.3.8) (@) Dryopters, (©) Adiarium Fig. 3.8. Example of pteridophyta. Another Way of Plant Classification According to Eichler (1883) plant kingdom is divided into two main subkingdoms: (@ Subkingdom Cryptogamae (ii) Subkingdom Phanerogamae Subkingdom Cryptogamae. It is divided into three divisions—Thallophyta, Bryophyta and Pteridophyta. Thallophyta includes algae. Bryophyta includes mosses and lichens. Pteridophyta includes the ferns. Diversity in the Living World 65Subkingdom Phanerogamae. It is divided into two subdivisions—Gymnosperms and An- giosperms. Gymnosperms include seedless plants like Pinus and angiosperms include dicotyledons and monocotyledons. ‘CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS Plant Kingdom (Kingdom Plantae) A. Subkingdom Cryptogamae . Subkingdom Phanerogamae (Those with hidden reproductive organs) (Spermatophyta) 1, Reproductive organs are inconspicuous. 1. Have well differentiated reproduction tissue /organs. 2. Includes lower plants which have naked 2. Includes higher plants which always embryos that are called spores. bear flowers and seeds. 3, Commonly called as flowerless or seedless 3. Commonly called as flowering plants. or seed bearing plants, 4. Consist of embryos along with stored food which serves for initial group of embryo during germination. 1. Division 2. Division 3. Division Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta eg. Algae, fungi e.g. Moses, eg. Ferns lichens liverworts : Gymnosperms Angiosperms Seeds are naked and not enclosed ‘Seeds are enclosed in fruits in fruits. eg. Pinus, Cycas Group Dicotyledons Group Monocotyiedons / Have two cotyledons Have one cotyledon in seed eg. in seed e.g. pea, gram wheat, rice Table 3.3. Comparison of Thallophyta, Bryophyta and Pteridophyta ‘Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta T. Plant body thallus like not | 1. Plant body does not have true | 1. Plants have true roots, stem differentiated into root, stem: roots, stems and leaves but and leaves. and leaves. may show root-like and leaf- like structures. 2. No specialised system for con-| 2. True conduction vascular 2. Conduction vascular system duction. system is absent. is present. 3. Includes algae. 3. Includes mosses and liver 3. Includes ferns. worts. 66 Saraswati Biology-IXaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.3.7 ANIMAL KINGDOM—KINGDOM ANIMALIA Kingdom Animalia includes about a million species. It shows an enormous diversity. () The organ- isms are eukaryotic, multicellular and heterotrophic. (ii) The cells do not have cell walls. (ii) Most animals are mobile. + It is divided into a number of phyla depending on the cell organisation, symmetry, presence or absence of notochord and body cavity. ‘* The phyla are graded in order of increasing complexity of organisation i.e. from simple single- celled protozoans to highly complex animals. * Animals have been grouped into two main categories depending on the presence or absence of notochord. A broad classification of animal kingdom is given below: Animal Kingdom Non-Chordates or Invertebrates Phylum Chordata ‘© Notochord is absent ‘© Notochord is present ‘Phyla Main Classes 1. Porifera (Sponges) 1. Pisces (Cartilage and bony fishes) 2. Cnidaria (Coelenterates) 2. Amphibia (Amphibians) 3, Platyhelminthes (Flatworms) 3, Reptilia (Reptiles) 4, Nematoda (Roundworms) 4, Aves (Birds) 5. Annelida (Segmented worms) 5. Mammalia (Mammals) 6. Arthropoda (Arthropods) 7. Mollusca 8. Echinodermata (Echinoderms) 1. PHYLUM PORIFERA (SPONGES) (L. poros—pore ; ferre—to bear) It includes about 5,000 species. Some are even 600 million years old. Important Features . 1. It includes pore-bearing animals commonly called as sponges. The body has a number of microscopic pores called ostiaon the surface.» -~ + 2. Sponges have a cavity in the centre called SPongocoel with a single large opening called osculum at the upper end. Allanimals are aquatic. They ela betmarine=Sieim, Leucosolenia, or freshwater—Spongilla. 4. Simplest multicellular animals with cellular differentiation only. They lack tissue organisation. Cells are loosely held together but there are no tissues or 5. Sponges are sessile and are found attached to the rocks. Could be present singly or in colonies. 6. Sponges may show various shapes. They could be, » 69aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(@) Hydra (©) Jellyfish (c)Sea Anemone: . Fig. 3.12. Phylum cnidaria—the coelenterates. 3, PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES—THE- FLATWORMS (Gk. Platys-flat; helmin—worms) Important Features 1. Have dorso-ventrally flattened body. Body is thin and flat and that is why they are called the flatworms. 2, First triploblastic animals—Body is formed from three primary germ layers. (b) Liver fluke (c) Planaita (realiving) Fig, 3.13. Phylum platyhelminthes—the flatworms. 3. Acoelomates (meaning no body cavity), bilaterally symmetrical animals. Have an anterior and aposteriorend. 4. Have unsegmented, ribbon like or leaf like body. Tapeworm has false segments (pseudosegments). 5. Alimentary canal is incomplete. Have only mouth, and there isno anus. It isa blind sac plan. Diversity in the Living World 716. Excretory system is by flame cells. 7. Mostly parasitic on other animals. Some are free-living also. Free-living flatworms are mainly aquatic. Examples: Tapeworm; Liverfluke; Planaria (Fig. 3.13). 4, PHYLUM NEMATODA—THE ROUNDWORMS Important Features 1. Have unsegmented, round, tube-like or worm-likebody. ‘They are triploblastic animals, means the body is formed from three germ layers. Show bilateral symmetry. Body cavity is not a true coclom. It is called pseudocoelom ie. false body cavity. Alimentary canal is complete. Body size varies a lot. It could be from 1/125th of an inch to 4 feet long. Excretory system consists of protonephridia. Some are free-living, some are important plant and animal parasites. Examples: Roundworm, Pinworm, Filaria worm (Fig. 3.14) PNAReRYN Mouth f.( —\\I [curves | —Body sheath Inner body | \ | hy f anus iy i. Straight r ‘ail = | Female werm Female worm (@) Roundworm (6) Pin worm —_(c) Filaria worm Fig. 3.14. Phylum nematoda—the roundworms. 5. PHYLUM ANNELIDA—THE SEGMENTED-WORMS (L.annulus—a ring ; eidos—form) Important Features 1. Elongated body, metamerically segmented. The segments are visible as transverse rings. 2. Triploblastic and bilaterally symmetrical. 3. Coelom—the body cavity is well developed. They are the first animal with true body cavity called coelom. 4. Locomotion is by chitinous setae or by paired lateral appendages called parapodia. 5. Some of the anterior body segments concentrate to form head. . Body is covered by a transparent moist cuticlesecreted by ectoderm. » 72aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.* In chronic diseases medicines need to be given for a long period of time to cure the disease. Long duration and prolonged use of medicines have following effects on the body: @ Poor functioning of some vital organ of the body. Since chronic diseases last for a long time, they generally cause damage to the vital organs of the body like heart, lungs or kid- neys, for example lungs get severely affected during tuberculosis, (i) Drastic bad effect on health. Not only vital organs but general health of the body deterio- rates during a chronic disease. The person may lose weight, feel fatigue and feel tired have other health problems. (iii) Prolonged general poor health. Ittakes long to recover from a chronic disease and so in this long process, the person has prolonged general poor health. It is also related to malfunc- tioning of the vital organs of the body. (i) Drastic long-term effects. Apart from general poor health, chronic diseases also have many other economic and financial implications which may have drastic long term effect on the person. 4. Causes of Diseases Whenever we have a disease, the first question that comes to mind is, “What is the cause of the disease?” For a disease, there is always an immediate cause like the disease could be due to virus, bacteria, worms, protozoan etc. The other causes like poor health or nourishment are contributory causes. Let us study these causes at the following levels: Levels of Causes 1. First Level # Itrefers totheimmediale cause. ~ + The immediate cause refers to the agent that causes the disease. Viruses, bacteria, protozo- ans, and worms are the immediate causes. For example, when a child suffers from loose motions, the immediate cause could be a virus orbacteria. 2. Second Level ‘+ Itdeals with the reason of infection for the immediate cause like: —Where did the viruses come from? — Is itdue to unclean drinking water? — Why didn't other children get it? —Isitdue to poor health of the body? —Isitdue to some genetic difference that makesa child more likely to get the disease when exposed to the virus or bacteria? * Itrefers tothe contributory causes. 3. Third Level © This also refers to the contributory causes. + Itdeals with the public health and public services that a person is exposed to. For example, (Why Do We Fall It 97aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.3. Why do antibiotics work against bacteria but not against viruses? @) Antibiotics and bacteria. We often take antibiotics when suffering from bacterial infections. * Antibiotics commonly block important biochemical pathways of bacteria. For example, many bacteria make a cell-wall to protect themselves. The antibiotic Penicillin blocks the biochemical pathways that build the cell wall. Hence the bacteria are unable to make the cell wall and die away. Since the human cells do not have a cell-wall, penicillin does not affect human cells and affects the bacterial cells only. (©) Antibiotics and Viruses, Antibiotics are not effective against viruses. * Viruses do not have these metabolic pathways as found in bacteria. Instead viruses make use of the machinery and pathways of the host cell. Hence antibiotics do not work against viral infections. + Common cold is due to the viral infection. Now if we take antibiotics during viral cold, itis of no help. However if the bacterial infection also sets in along with the cold, the antibiotic will work only against the bacterial part of infection, not the viral infection. 4, Means of Spread Since the infectious diseases can spread from a diseased person to a healthy person, they are also called as communicable diseases. « The infectious diseases can be transmitted by various means and if not controlled, can take an epidemic form. . Direct Contact. An infectious disease can spread by direct contact between the infected and the healthy person. It includes diseases like chicken pox, common cold etc. Direct contact or contact with the discharge from the sores, skin or infectious membranes cause the infection. . Big Air-Airborne, ‘droplet’ infection. For the diseases thatspread through air, tiny droplets are sufficient to cause an infection. The little droplets get thrown into air when an infected person sneezes, coughs or spits. They are laden with bacteria and viruses. By inhaling this air containing the droplets, one gets the infection. * Mostair-bome respiratory infections, like commoncold, pneumonia, tuberculosis, and influenza ‘occur in this way. * Itisacommon experience to get cold and cough, if one is sitting next to the infected person. More crowded is the place, easier it is to catch the infection. 3. By Water. The diseases through water spread, when the excreta of an infected person suffering “from an infectious disease like cholera, gets mixed with the drinking water. v ACTIVITY 4.4 + Find out how many of you in your class had cold/cough/ fever recently. + How long did the illness last? * How many of you took antibiotics (ask your parents if you had antibiotics)? « How long were those who took antibiotics ill? « How long were those who didn’t take antibiotics ill? © Istherea difference between these two groups? Ifyes, why? Ifnot, why not? 100 Saraswati BiologyIX« AIDS. (@) AIDSis a sexually transmitted disease. ( It can also spread through blood to blood contact (blood transfusion or using the same infected needle) with the infected person. (0 If a mother has the disease, the infected mother can pass it to her baby during pregnancy or through breast feeding. 6. By Vector. Many times the transmission of the infecting agent to a healthy person is not directbut through an intermediary agent, called the vector or carriers. * The common vectors ate insects like cockroaches, houseflies and mosquitoes etc. They carry infectious agents and spread the disease. © Malaria spreads through female anopheles mosquito. The female anopheles carries the malarial parasite in its salivary glands which get transferred during mosquito bite. # In many species of mosquitoes, the females feed on the blood of warm-blooded animals. In this process they transfer the diseases from one person to another. « Rat fleas spread plague, house flies spread cholera and many other intestinal diseases. 7. By bite of an animal. Rabies or hydrophobia in man is caused by a virus that is transmitted through a dog bite. The virus is present in the saliva of the rabid animal and enters the healthy person through the wound. 5, Organ-specific and Tissue-specific Manifestations # The disease-causing microbes enter the body through different means like: (@) Nose, (b) Mouth, (c)Sexual contact, (d)Skin, (e) Blood etc. * Doall microbes go to the same tissue or organ or do they go to different ones? Since these microbes enter the body through different parts, they reach different organs and tissues of the body where they cause infection. © Their point of entry in the body is directly related to the organ or tissue they infect. This can be understood by studying some examples given in the table. Table 4.2 Point of entry of microbe in the body Organ the microbe infects Examples of disease caused 1. Through nose from air 2. Through mouth (by food or water) 3. Through sexual contact 4, Through mosquito bite (from skin to blood) * Likely to go to lungs * Likely to go to alimentary canal or gut * Some can go to liver also * Likely to go to sexual organs ‘* Reach blood direcily + Bacteria causing tuberculosis enter through nose by the droplet infection. * Bacteria causing typhoid infect the gut-lining. + Jaundice is a water-borne disease, caused by a virus that infects the liver. AIDS is caused by HIV (virus) that comes into the body through sexual contact. It then spreads to lymph nodes of the body and weakens the body immunity. Malaria is caused by malarial parasite Plasmodium that enters the blood through mosquito biteFrom there it enters the red blood cells and liver cells and infects them. * Japanese encephalitis or brain fever is caused by a virus that also enters through the mosquito bite. It then goes on to infect the brain cells TISSUE-SPECIFIC MANIFESTATIONS The signs and symptoms of the disease depend on the tissue or the organ, the infectious agent or microbe targets. Organ or tissue targeted Tissue-specific infestations/ Symptoms 1. Lungs... ‘Cough and breathlessness 2. Liver Jaundice ‘ Headache, vomiting, fits or unconsciousness Diarthoea, loose motions COMMON EFFECTS OF DISEASES * Along with tissue-specific manifestations of the diseases, there are some common effects of the diseases too. Since these effects occur in many diseases, they do not point towards any specific disease, for example fever and headache are common to a number of diseases. * Common effects are due to the fact that the body’s immune system gets activated, the moment an infection occurs in the body. The activated immune system involvesa number of cells which are sentto the affected organ to kill the disease causing microbes. This reaction in the body may lead to inflammation of the affected organ. This process leads to both local and general effects. * Local effect Swelling and pain of the infected area. + General effect.. Fever (rise in temperature of the whole body). 4.4 IMMUNE SYSTEM AND AIDS Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome, commonly called AIDS is a life threatening disease. At present there is no vaccine toprevent and there is no cure. However, AIDS is preventable. AIDS was first detected in USA in Mode of Infection The infection from the AIDS virus occurs only: 1. When a person has sexual contact with an infected person. June 1981. Cause. Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)is caused by aretrovirus HIV (human immunodeficiency virus). This virus attacks the white blood cells in the human blood. Spread of AIDS * People infected with AIDS virus remain apparently well even after infection. They may not show any physical symptoms of 2. By using contaminated needles and blades or razors. Even the smallest amount of infected blood left in the used needle or on blade can contain live AIDS virus which can be passed onto the next user. 3. By blood to blood contact as in blood trans- fusion 4. From an infected mother to foetus. (Ifa woman is infected with the AIDS virus and becomes pregnant, she can pass the AIDS virus to her unborn child) illness for a long time. When the AIDS virus enters the blood stream, it begins to attack certain 1034.6 PRINCIPLES OF PREVENTION 1. Why should we prevent a disease? Why is prevention better than cure? Given below are three important reasons why should we prevent a disease. (@) Once a person has a disease, some of the body functions may get damaged and may not recover completely. (©) The treatment of the disease always takes time, which means the person suffering from the disease is confined to bed or incapable of normal routine till proper treatment is given and the person recovers. (©) The person suffering from the infectious disease can serve as a source from where the infection may spread to other people. This can lead to multiplicity of above two difficulties. 2. How can we prevent diseases? ‘There are two ways in which the infectious diseases can be prevented: @ General ways of prevention and ®) Specific ways of prevention. (@ General ways of prevention Itrelates to preventing the exposure to the infectious microbe. Here one looks at, as to how the disease spreads and takes care to prevent those things. Some general ways of prevention are given below: 1. Prevention by keeping the environment clean The basic key to the prevention of infectious disease is by keeping clean environment and good public hygiene. @ Forairbome microbes . Prevent exposure by providing living conditions that are not overcrowding. Prevent drinking unsafe water. + Treat water to kill the infectious microbe and drink safe water only. Provide clean environment like clean, covered and hygienic food and drinks. + Mosquito nets if spread isby mosquitoes. * Donot allow mosquito breeding, by keeping the drains clean or spraying with kerosene. (ii) For water-borne microbes .... ii) Forvector-bomneinfections... 2. Proper and sufficient food For agood immune system, itis important to havea healthy body. Itmeans one should eat proper, balanced and sufficient food for a good active immune system. ACTIVITY 4.5 Conduct a survey in your locality. Talk to ten families who are well-off and ten who are very poor (in your estimation). Both sets of families should have children who are below five years of age. Measure the heights of these children. Draw a graph of the height of each child againstits age for both sets of families. Is there difference between the groups? If yes, why? If there is no difference, do you think that your findings mean that being, well-off or poor does not matter for health? 1053, Non-specific immune system of our body This defense mechanism of our body aims at (a) to stop the entry of microbes into the body and (iif the microbes manage to enter the body, then to kill them directly or indirectly. * Our skin and mucous membranes try to stop the entry of micro-organisms. « Theimmune cells try tokill the infection before it manages major proportion and cause disease. Ifthe infection takes place, that means, our immune system didn't succeed to kill the microbes. (b) Specific ways of prevention Itrefers to a part of ourimmune system thatreacts against specific microbes, recognises them and kills them. 3. Immunity Immunity is the capacity of the body to defend against the disease. Immunity can also be defined as the ability to the body to resist the disease. The immunity can be of two types: (i) Natural or in-born and (ii) Acquired (Refer Table below.) Types of Immunity Immunity Natural Acquired (Presentat the time of birth) (acquired after birth) Passive Active 1. Preformed antibodies are introduced. _1. Achieved by injectingtheantigen. 2. Body doesnot form its own antibodies. 2. Body makes its own antibodies. 3. Immunity is short lived. 3. Immunity is long lasting, may be for a life time. Edward Jenner and the First Vaccination Dr. Edward Jenner, an eighteenth century English physician, made a very important observation in 1790. Small-pox was the most dreadful disease of those times. Today it has been fully eradicated. Dr. Jenner no- ticed that the milkmaids and dairy workers did not get the disease. On close observation he found that all these people contracted cow pox from the animal at some time earlier during life, which appeared in the form a pustule on hand and left a scar and nothing serious happened. Dr. Jenner experimented with the boy Philips and infected him first with cow pox and later after six weeks with small-pox. To his surprise the boy did not get small-pox and survived the attack showing that he was immunised to small-pox. Jenner gave the term vaccine (Vacca in Latin means cow) to the fluid he inoculated. @) Natural or in-born immunity. It refers to the immunity present at the time of birth. During the development of the child, some antibodies from the mother pass through the placenta to the foetus. They give a passive immunity for a short time only because the antibodies are limited and are not produced by the child. However, they protect the young child from number of diseases like measles and polio till body's own immune system becomes functional. 106 Saraswati Biology-IX(® Acquired immunity. Itis the immunity acquired after birth. It could be active or passive. Ai) Activeimmunity. Itis produced by injecting asmall quantity ofan antigencalled the vaccine into the body. The process is called asimmunisation or vaccination. In active immunity the body manufactures the antibodies against the antigen and that is why such an immunity lasts and protects the animal for a long time. Active immunity can be acquired by various means. When the body is exposed to an antigen for the first time, it contracts the disease. The body not only produces antibodies, but also large number of memory cells. When the antigen strikes the second time, the memory cells produce large number of antibodies and the body does not contract a disease. It may last fora life time. This is the reason why some childhood diseases like measles, mumps, chicken pox etc., occur only once in a life time. (ii) Passive Immunity. In this immunity, the organisms own body does not produce the antibodies instead readymade antibodies from some other organism are introduced for protection against the disease. For protection against tetanus, diptheria, rabies or Salmonella, the disease causing bacteria or virus is introduced into another animal like horse or sheep. Antibodies soon appear in the horse’s orsheep’s blood. From there, the antibodies are extracted and injected into humans to provide the passive immunity. Such an immunity is shortlived but can avert death. Recently efforts are being made to make safer, better and more potent vaccines. By the help of DNA techniques a successful vaccine has been produced against hepatitis virus. 4. Vaccination and Immunisation Active immunity may develop naturally after a person is infected with a pathogen. However active immunity can also be induced in a healthy person so that possible future infection doesnot take place. ‘The process by which it can be achieved is known as vaccination or immunisation. © The principle of immunisation or vaccination is based on the property of the ‘memory’ of the immune system. Dr. Jenner's procedure of injecting a harmless microbe in order to confer resistance to a danger- ous one is called vaccination. ‘* Invaccination a preparation called the vaccine isintroduced into the body. The immune system confronts the vaccine composed of harmless variant of a disease-causing microbe. The vaccine stimulates the immune system in a way that it not only produces antibodies but also generates a large number of memory cells. When the vaccinated person is attacked by thesame pathogen, the existing memory cells recognise the antigen quickly and produce large number of antibodies and lymphocytes to combat the pathogen and the person does not contract the disease. 5. Immunisation and Memory Cells Our immune system is extremely specific and it has a remarkable ‘memory’. This immunological memory is based on the number of memory cells present. They can remember antigens, they have encountered before and react against them more promptly and vigorously on the second and subse- quent exposures. This type of active immunity is usually long-lived and lasts as long as the memory cellsare present inblood. For some diseases, a single vaccination can givea life-long immunity. For some diseases, a few repeated doses need to be given. Available Vaccines + Now-a-days there are vaccines against tetanus, diptheria, whooping cough, measles, polio and many other diseases. * Thereis a publichealth programme of childhood immunisation to prevent the abovementioned infectious diseases. 107aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.* On being heated, the convection currents set-up in the air, and the hot air rises above. © Let us look at the situation in the coastal areas. Since the land gets heated faster than water, so does thé air above the land. During the day, the hot air rises faster over the land. Ast rises, it creates a low pressure area below. Air over the sea moves into this low pressure area. Movement of air from one region to, another creates wind. In this case direction of the wind is from the sea to land during the day. During the night, both land and sea start cooling. Water cools slower than the land. L Air above water rises up and creates low pressure below. L Air from the land moves into this area of low pressure. Hence the direction of wind at night is from the land towards the sea. Factors that Influence Movement of Air 1. Uneven heating of atmosphere in different regions of the earth. 2. Rotation of the earth. 3. Presence of mountain ranges in the path of wind. 4. Topography of the regions (sand, land and water etc.) through which air/wind passes. 5. Rain Sequence of events. In the water bodies like oceans, rivers, lakes, snow caps get heated, water enters the atmosphere by evaporation. Some amount of water is released by transpiration from plants as well. t The hot air carrying water vapours rises up. t As the air rises, it expands and cools. t Cooling causes the water vapour in the air to condense in the form of tiny droplets. (Air also contains dust and other suspended particles. They act as ‘nucleus’ around which the drops of water get formed.) Once the water droplets get formed, they grow bigger by condensation of more water droplets. (They appear as clouds in air.) 4 ‘When these water droplets become big and heavy, they fall down in the form of rain. If the temperature of air is very low, instead of water droplets, the precipitation occurs in the form of hail, sleet or snow. +» Rainfall pattern is decided by the wind pattern. + Normally in India rains are caused by south-west or north-east monsoons. 116 ae eaeeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Sources of Air Pollution They can be put broadly in two categories: 1. Natural and 2. Man-made. 1. Natural Source Pollutants «© Forest fires, * CO,,CO, hydrocarbons * Volcanic eruptions © Smoke, ash, harmful dust, sulphurous gases * Duststorm © Dust © Natural air pollutants * Pollens, spores, microorganisms 2. Man-made Source * Burning of fossil fuelse.g. coaland — Oxides of nitrogen and sulphur, CO, petroleum co, © Thermal atomic energy, power © CO,, SO,, hydrocarbons, oxides of plants, small scale industries, fac- _ nitrogen tories, transport vehicles @ Use of CFCs © Depletion of ozone (O,) layer HARMFUL EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION 1. On respiratory system. The air pollution causes various respiratory disorders in living organisms. Organisms may suffer from bronchitis, asthma, lung cancer and pneumonia etc. Dueto high air pollution in Delhi, one out of every four children suffers from asthma or bronchitis. 2. Effect of carbon monoxide (CO). Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless anda highly toxic gas given out by motor vehicles, charcoal stoves, cigarette smoke, gas heaters etc. It affects the central nervous system. Inhaling of CO in large quantities is fatal. CO has 200 times more affinity to combine with haemoglobin than oxygen. It diffuses into blood stream, combines with haemoglobin and forms an irreversible compound called carboxy haemo- globin. It is poisonous, causes suffocation and in extreme cases leads to death. 3, Depletion of ozone layer due to CFCs. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are used as coolants in refrigerators, as propellant gases in spray cans containing anything from deodorants to insecticides (aerosol sprayers), and used in fire extinguishers ete. (CFCs damage the protective ozone layer present around the earth, Ozone acts as a protective shield against dangerous ultraviolet rays of sun. Due to depletion of ozone layer caused by CFCs, ultravio- let (IV) radiations reach the earth's surface.) UV radiations cause skin cancer, weaken the immune system and cause damage to eyes (cataract of eye). UV rays also kill and damage a number of beneficial forms of life, bringing ecological disturbances. ACTIVITY 5.5 1. Organisms called lichens are found to be very sensitive to the levels of contaminants like sul- phur dioxide in the air. Lichens can be commonly found growing on the barks of trees as a thin greenish-white crust. See if you can find lichen growing on the trees in your locality. 2. Compare the lichen on trees near busy roads and trees some distance away. 3. On the trees near roads, compare the incidence of lichen on the side facing the road and on the side away from the road. 118 Saraswati Biology=IX4, Acid rain. The oxides of sulphur (SO,—sulphur dioxide, $O,—sulphur trioxide) and ox- ides of nitrogen (NO—nitrous oxide, NO,—nitrogen dioxide) dissolve in rain water and forma dilute solution of sulphuric acid and nitric acid respectively. The rain carrying these acids is called acid rain. — Acid rain causes severe damage to monuments, buildings and statues. The acids in rain cause corrosion of the marble or brick surface. Many historical monuments like Taj are being damaged by acid rain. For this reason only, the industrial units near the monuments are being shifted. — Acid rain makes the soil aci: forest and crop productivity. — Acid rain causes irritation of eyes in humans. — Acid rain is poisonous to plant life, fishes and aquatic animals. 5, Smog. Smog isa mixture of smoke and fog. Smog is formed due to the reaction between the exhaust released from the automobiles and the UV radiations and water vapour in the atmosphere. c. This causes gradual degradation of soil and decline in Exhaust + UV radiations and water vapour > Smog ‘Smog occurs in traffic congested areas and results in a brown haze or grey air. — Itcauses stinging sensation in eyes, headaches and other disorders in humans. Certain lichens and mosses are reliable indicators of air pollution and can often be ranked in a sensitivity scale to changing levels of air pollution, especially the content of SO,. The lichens stop growing if the air pollution increases to a certain level. Their pattern and distribution can be related to the extent of pollution in that area or locality. ‘Lickens are commonly found on the barks of trees as a thin greenish-white crust. 5.3 WATER—A WONDER LIQUID Water is an inexhaustible natural resource whichis absolutely necessary for life. Getting wateris one of the basic human needs. Water is considered as a precious national asset. 1. Role of Water 1. Wateris the most abundant substance in a cell, and in an organism, it makes up to 60-70% of the body weight. 2. It is essential for all life processes. It isa universal solvent i.e. practically all chemical substances dissolve in water to some extent. Ithas a strong influence in controlling climate. Water is used for drinking, cooking, cleaning and many other household activities. Itis essential for agriculture and industry. Rivers and oceans provide a surface for transportation and shipping. The potential energy of water is used to generate electrical power. e eA ACTIVITY 56 1, Many municipal corporations are trying water-harvesting techniques to improve the availability of water. 2. Find out what these techniques are and how they would increase the water that is available for use. 119aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4, Living Organisms. The lichens (symbiotic association of algae and fungi) grow on the rock surface. As they grow, they release the substances that cause the rock surface to powder down. The weathering of rock results in thin layer of soil. Over a period of time, in this soil, small plants like mosses are also able to grow. As they grow, they cause further weathering of rocks. Mosses speed up the process of soil accumulation by trapping wind-blown particles. Mosses together with lichens form a mat over the rock surface. Then small herbs, shrubs and trees take root in the soil. The roots of big trees may sometimes cause cracks in the rocks and further speed up the soil formation. 3. Composition of Soil Constituents of soil (Fig. 5.6). As is clear from the formation of soil described above, soil isnot just a group of mineral particles but has biological or living matter in it. Soil is made up of following constituents. 1. Mineral Nutrients. Basic particles formed by weathering of rocks. Consists of inorganic salts. The size and chemical composition of particles differ in different soils. Mineral nutrients depend on the rock they are formed from. 2. Humus. Decomposed remains of organic materials. It could be dark brown orblack and mainly forms the top soil. Rich in nutrients and enhances plant growth. 3. Living Organisms, Many kinds of bacteria, fungi, 5% Living algae, protozoans, earthworm, insects Organisms and larvae are present in the soil. 4, Water. Forms a film, around the soil particles. Also dissolves minerals and nutrients pe Siegert Displaces air Fig 5.6. Constituents of soil. 5. Air. Fills fine spaces between the soil particles. Soil organisms live best in soils that contain almost equal amount of air and water. Humusis the major factor in deciding the soil structure because it makes the soil porous and allows water and air to go deeper in the ground. Factors that decide which plants will thrive in the soil: 1. Nutrient content of soil 2. Amount of humus present 3. Depth of the soil ‘Top soil. The topmost layer of the soil that contains humus and living organisms and the soil particles is called the top soil*. Top Soil = Humus + Living Organisms + Soil Particles + The quality of top soil is an important factor that decides the biodiversity in that area. ACTIVITY 59 1, Take some soil and put it into a beaker containing water. The water should be at least five times the amount of soil taken. Stir the soil and water vigorously and allow the soil to settle down. Observe aftersome time. 2. Is the soil at the bottom of the beaker homogenous or have layers formed? 3, Iflayers have formed, how is one layer different from another? 4, Is there anything floating on the surface of the water? 5. Do you think some substances would have dissolved in the water? How would you check? 1234. Factors that destroy the Soil Structure . Fertilisers and pesticides. Excessive use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides over a long period of time damages the soil structtire by killing the soil microorganisms. Soil microor- ganisms are important as they recycle nutrients in the soil. * They also kill the earthworms which make the soil porous and are instrumental in add- ing rich humus. 2. Soil erosion. It can be due to natural causes like floods, high wind, ocean waves or due to man made activities like over-grazing, deforestation etc. Overeropping. When a crop is grown in the same land year after year successively, without \ding proper manure or nutrients, it reduces the fertility of the soil. Soil pollution. Removal of useful components from the soil and addition of other sub- stances (like pesticides and fertilisers) that adversely affect the fertility of the soil and kill the organism inhabiting the soil is called as soil pollution. Role of wind and water. As mentioned earlier, wind and water are important natural agents that create soil over a long period of time. * These very agents, wind and water are responsible for removal of soil also. Soil gets washed away by fast flowing water and strong winds. When soil gets removed from the rocks, exposing the underlying rock, very little vegetation grows on such a rock. Removal of the soil by wind and water is called soil erosion. 5. Prevention of Soil Erosion Soil erosion can be checked by a number of means as given below: 1. By restoring forests and grass covers. Itneeds planting of trees and sowing drought resis- tant grasses so that the soil is not left bare. A grass cover or vegetation cover is an excellent binding material that stops soil erosion. 2. Contour farming and terracing on the sloping fields reduce the speed of water flow. Hence, it checks the soil erosion. » in a ACTIVITY 5.10 ‘Take two identical trays and fill them with soil. Plant mustard or green gram or paddy in one of the trays and water both the trays regularly for a few days, till the first tray is covered by plant growth. Now, tilt both the trays and fix them in that position. Make sure that both the trays are tilted at the same angle. Pour equal amount of water gently on both trays such that the water flows out of the trays (Fig. 5.7). Study the amount of soil thatiis carried out of the trays. Is the amount the same in both the trays? Now pour equal amounts of water on both the trays from a height. Pour three or four times the amount that you poured earlier. Study the amount of soil thatis carried out of the trays now. Is the amount the same in both the trays? . Istheamount of oil that is carried out more or less or equal to the amount washed out ear- lier? FS Fig 57. Effect of lowing water on the top-soil. 124aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.