MASINDE MULIRO UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF NATURAL & APPLIED

SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
Lecturer: Dr. Christine Onyango conyango@mmust.ac.ke
0721889205 Office: SPD 310
Lecture: Tuesday ECA 203 5-7pm
SBL 121: CELL BIOLOGY

Time Commitment:
Year of study: First (Undergraduate)
Total Time Commitment: 28 contact hours, 30 practical hours. Total time commitment of 58 hours.
Contact Hours: one 2hr lecture weekly
and 3 practical hours.
Prerequisites: NONE

Recommended Background It is highly recommended that the students should have done SBT 112:
Knowledge: Introduction to genetics and Basic Chemistry I in their first year of study
Subject Overview: The objective of this course is to familiarise students with basic concepts
of cell biology, and to appreciate the cell as the basic unit of life. Students
will learn the cell organelles and their functions, the key cellular
processes, cell division and cell death. Using examples from plant and
animal cells, the subject will outline the cellular structures and molecular
processes that are fundamental for regulating cell function in multicellular
organisms.
Objectives: At the completion of this subject, students should:
●have a knowledge of the basic processes of life;

● be familiar with the structure and function of both prokaryotic and

eukaryotic cells;

● understand the structure and function of organelles, and how

they contribute to the overall functioning of organisms;

●understand the basis of cell division, cell cycle and cell death

● be able to complete basic manipulations with laboratory

equipment, in particular the use of microscopes;

● Develop a broad understanding of the structure of eukaryotic cells

(plant and animal) and the compartments where various
cellular activities occur;and

●Identify the range of cellular activities that are especially relevant to
 multicellular organisation.

Assessment: ● Two 1 hour short answer tests (20% total) in mid and late semester;
practical sessions (10%)

●2 hour final examination (70%) at end of semester.

Course Break

down Week 1 Arrival and

Week 2 registration The cell

and its history
The cell theory:- The cellular basis of life

Week 3-4 Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells: similarities and differences

Cell structure and infrastructure

Cell organelles: plasma membrane structure, the structure and function
of the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosome, the
structure and function of ribosome, peroxisomes, mitochondria, vacuoles,
Week 5 cytoskeleton; Pigments- chloroplast, chromoplast

Intracellular communication:- cell junctions and adhesion molecules

Week 6
CAT 1
Week 7
Cell Biochemistry -carbohydrates, fats, proteins and nucleic acids
(structure, classes and function)
Week 8
Freight Management in the Cell: Diffusion, osmosis, active transport.
Current Aspects of Intracellular Membrane Trafficking
Week 9
Enzymes and cellular metabolism: Characteristics of enzymes, important
types. Cellular metabolism:-glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transfer
Week 10 system

The cell cycle- Phases of the cell cycle, mitosis , regulation of the cell cycle
Week 11
Meiosis
Week 12 CAT 2

Week 13 Organelle biogenesis:- historical perspective, regulation of

Week 14 biogenesis Cell turnover:- Cell death, apoptosis

Revision
 EXAMS
Week 15-16
Practicals Practical 1: Basics of Microscopy
Practical 2: Examination of prokaryotic and Eukarytoic cells under the
microscope
Practical 3: The cell ultra-structure
Practical 4: Cell processes:-movement of substances in
the cell Practical 5: Enzyme activity ells
Practical 6: Cell division, observing the various stages of cell division using
onion root tip
Recommended text books Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4th edition. Bruce Alberts, Alexander
Johnson, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, and Peter Walter.
New York: Garland Science; 2002. ISBN-10: 0-8153-3218-1

The Cell, A Molecular Approach 2nd edition Geoffrey M Cooper. Boston

University Sunderland (MA): Sinauer Associates; 2000. ISBN-10:
0-87893-106- 6

Cell Biology. Edmund Jack Ambrose; Dorothy M. Easty: Nelson

publishers. 1977. ISBN 10: 0177710330 / 0-17-771033-0
Principles of Cell Biology. Valerie M. Kish. Harpercollins College Div 1988
(ISBN: 006043712X / 0-06-043712-X)
Introduction:
A cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organisms

Characteristics of cells:
1) Contain highly organized molecular and biochemical systems
2) Use energy
3) Capable of movement
4) Sense environmental changes
5) Can duplicate (transfer genetic information to offspring)
6) Capable of self-regulation
7) Most cells are invisible to the naked eye and thus, a microscope is needed to view them

History of discovery of the cell

Date Event
166 Cell first observed by Robert Hooke using a primitive compound microscope. He only
5 saw cell walls on dead tissue. He coined the term "cell".
167 First living cells seen by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch biologist when he looked
0 at pond water with a microscope.
168 Miniature animals observed by Anton van Leeuwenhoek. Among these were the first
3 protozoa and bacteria.
176 Bacteria replication
6 Abraham Trembley observed bacteria replicate by binary fission
183 The center of the cell seen
3 Robert Brown, an English botanist, discovered the nucleus in plant cells.
183 Basic building blocks
8 Matthias Jakob Schleiden, a German botanist, proposes that all plant tissues are
composed of cells, and that cells are the basic building blocks of all plants.
183 Cell theory
9 Theodor Schwann, a German botanist reached the conclusion that both plants and
animal tissues are composed of cells. This ended debates that plants and animals
were fundamentally different in structure. He coined the cell theory, which stated:
1. Cells are organisms and all organisms consist of one or more cells
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure for all organisms
184 Where does life come from
0 Albrecht von Roelliker discovers that sperm and eggs are also cells.
 184 Basic unit of life
5 Carl Heinrich Braun reworks the cell theory, calling cells the basic unit of life.
185 3rd part to the cell theory added
5 Rudolf Virchow, a German added the 3rd part to the cell theory. He proposed that
diseased cells come from healthy cells.
186 Gregor Mendel demonstrated that cellular traits (phenotypes) were inherited. He was
5 Named "Father of Genetics"
189 Camillo Golgi discovers the Golgi apparatus
8
194 Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and MacLyn McCarty- Demonstrated that DNA was
4-19 the heredity molecule
52
195 James Watson and Francis Crick-developed the 3-D structure of DNA
3

Modern Cell Theory

Modern Cell Theory contains 4 statements, in addition to the original Cell Theory:
1. The cell contains hereditary information (DNA) which is passed on from cell
to cell during cell division.
2. All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic
activities.
3. All basic chemical and physiological functions are carried out inside the
cells.
4. Cell activity depends on the activities of organelles within the cell

Microscopes
Most cells are microscopic and cannot be seen by the naked eye.

There are two main types of microscopes: light microscopes and electron microscopes

1. Light microscope:
The light microscope uses glass lenses to focus a beam of light to form a
magnified image of an object. The lenses are placed between the sample and the
viewer's eye to magnify the image. It has a resolving power of about 0.2 μm, which
is 1,000 times that of the human eye.
2. Electron Microscope:
An electron microscope uses magnets to focus an electron beam. The resolving power
of electron microscopes is about 0.05 nm, which is 400,000 times that of the human eye.
This resolving power permits the details of many sub-cellular structures to be
distinguished. The magnification of an electron microscope may be as high as
10,000,000 times. Types include
a. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM): This is used to view thin
specimens (tissue sections). It is used to image the interior of cells, the
arrangement of protein molecules in cell membranes etc.
b. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM): This produces images of a sample by
scanning the surface of cells or isolated cellular structures with a focused
beam of electrons.

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryote cells (bacteria) differ from eukaryotic cells (animals, plants, fungi,
protista). Prokaryotic cells are smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells, and do
not have a nucleus.

Prokaryotic cells

Organelle Function
Cytoplasm Contains all enzymes needed for all metabolic reactions.
Ribosomes The smaller (70S type), protein synthesis
Nuclear body The region of the cytoplasm that contains DNA. It is not surrounded by a
nuclear membrane.
DNA Always circular and not associated with any proteins to form chromatin.
Plasmid Small loops of DNA, used to exchange DNA between bacterial cells.
Cell Made of phospholipids and proteins, like eukaryotic membranes.
membrane
Mesosome A tightly folded of the cell membrane containing proteins required for
respiration and photosynthesis.
Cell wall Made of a glycoprotein (peptidoglycan).
There are 2 kinds of cell wall, which can be distinguished by Gram’s stain:
√ Gram +ve bacteria- have a thick cell wall, stain purple.
√ Gram –ve bacteria- have a thin cell wall with an outer lipid layer and
stain pink.
Capsule A thick polysaccharide layer outside the cell wall. Used for sticking cells
together, as a food reserve, as protection against desiccation, chemicals,
and phagocytosis. Found only in some Gram +ve bacteria. If a capsule
is present, then flagellae are not.
Flagellum A rigid rotating helical-shaped tail used for propulsion. Always rotate
clockwise.

Eukaryotic cells

Eukaryote Evolution Endosymbiosis theory

- Chloroplast & mitochondria were free-living organisms
- Both were engulfed by a larger predator cell
- Both gave the larger cell an advantage (make food and energy)
- Predator cell provided protection
- Over time, these cells could not survive without the mitochondria &
chloroplast
Evidence: Mitochondria & chloroplast contain own DNA, replicate, contain own
ribosomes
 Plant cell

The animal Cell

Plasma membrane
Lipids and proteins constitute the major components of the plasma membrane
in a lipid bilayer. Some of the proteins and lipids may have carbohydrate
molecules attached to them forming glycoproteins and glycolipids respectively.
The lipid bilayer is made up phospholipids which amphipathic i.e. one end of the
molecule carries an electrical charge and is hydrophilic while the other end is
neutral and is hydrophobic. As the plasma membrane faces watery solutions on
both sides, its phospholipids accommodate this by forming a phospholipid
bilayer with the hydrophobic tails facing each other. The cell membrane has two
types of proteins: Peripheral/extrinsic proteins that are loosely associated with
the cytoplasmic surface and the integral/intrinsic proteins which are tightly
bound within the membrane.
 Functions of the cell membrane

●Protects the inner contents of the cell

●Regulates the movement of substances in and out of the cell
● Allows signals transduction by providing transmembrane receptors
that bind signal molecules
● Provides anchoring sites for components of the extra cellular matrix
and cytoskeletal filaments thus maintaining the shape of the cell
●Provides a stable site for binding and catalysis of enzymes
●Allows direct cell or organelle motility

1.Cytoplasm
This is the entire matrix that is enclosed by the cell membrane. It is in this complex
matrix that all the organelles are suspended.

2.Nucleus
The nucleus is generally a rounded body and may be is segregated from the cytoplasm
by a double membrane, the nuclear membrane/envelope. The envelope is only absent
during cell division. The outer membrane of the nuclear envelope is often continuous
with the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum.
The nuclear envelope is perforated by nuclear pores which control the movement of
substances such as mRNA and ribosomes in and out of the nucleus. The interior is
called the nucleoplasm, which is full of chromatin containing the genes. During cell
division the chromatin becomes condensed into observable chromosomes. The
nucleolus is a dark region of the nucleus, involved in making ribosomes and
“processing” mRNA.
 Functions of nucleus

●Store genetic information contained in the chromosomes

●Organizes genes into chromosomes to allow cell division
●Transports gene products via nuclear pores
●Produces messenger RNA (mRNA) that codes for proteins to be synthesized
●Produce ribosomes in the nucleolus

3.Endoplasmic reticulum
The ER is the largest membranous labyrinth in a cell continuous with the outer
membrane of the nuclear envelope. The ER consists of a network of tubules and sacs

called cisternae. Based on the presence or

absence of ribosomes on its surface, the endoplasmic reticulum can be divided into two
types: Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) and rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).
a.Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
Its membranes are free of ribosomes. It is involved in the synthesis, storage,
degradation and transportation of materials in the cell such as hormones. SER in the
liver cells are involved in detoxification of drugs and other poisons.
b.Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
It is abundant in cells that are actively synthesizing proteins due to the presence of
ribosomes on the surface of its membrane. Some of the proteins synthesized by the
ribosomes on the ER are secreted from the cells e.g. hormones and enzymes. Proteins
are released from the ER in transitory vesicles which carry them to the Golgi apparatus
for final modification and secretion.

4.Mitochondrion (pl. mitochondria)

These provide energy to the cell. Mitochondria consist of an outer and an inner
membrane. The outer membrane is smooth while the inner membrane is folded to form
cristae which extend into the matrix of the mitochondrion. The folding of the inner
membrane into cristae increases the surface area for enzyme activity.
The enzymes in the inner membrane enzymes are involved with respiration. They are
concerned with electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation for energy rich ATP
formation. The mitochondrion has its own DNA molecules and thus is able to
manufacture some molecules which it needs. Also the mitochondria replicate
themselves rather than being replicated by the cell. For these reasons scientists suspect
that mitochondria may have evolved from free living cells that developed a symbiotic
relationship with the ancestors of modern eukaryotic cells.

5.Ribosomes
Ribosomes are organelles found mostly attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
although some are found free in the cytoplasm. Each ribosome consists of ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) and protein molecules. Their sizes are expressed in S units, which denote
their rate of sedimentation upon centrifugation.
The Eukaryotic cell has ribosome of 80S units. Each of the ribosome is made up of 2
sub-units: a large 60S sub-unit and a smaller 40S subunit.

The assembly of the ribosome occurs in the nucleolus. The basic function of ribosome
is to direct the assembly of amino acids into proteins. The process of protein synthesis
can be summarized as a two stage process:
● Transcription
● Translation.

Transcription (Nucleus)
This involves the copying of the DNA strand that code for the protein to be synthesized.
The enzyme RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA double helix and copies the template
strand onto a new single strand of messenger RNA (mRNA). Once formed, the mRNA
leaves the nucleus into the cytoplasm through the nuclear pores. Several different types
of RNA are formed. These include transfer RNA (tRNA) that recognizes and binds to
specific amino acids and brings them to the ribosome, Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) which
forms part of ribosomes.

Translation (Cytoplasm)
In this phase, the coded information contained by the mRNA is interpreted by the
ribosome in the cytoplasm. A set of 3 bases on the mRNA will code for a specific amino
acid and is called a codon e.g. AAA codes for lysine, UUU for phenylalanine. Each tRNA
molecule also has a sequence of 3 bases called anticodon that recognizes the codon of
the mRNA by base pairing. Once the mRNA is attached to the ribosome, the ribosome
reads the bases on the mRNA against anticodon bases of transfer RNA, which are
attached to specific amino acids. The ribosome will attach the amino acid and move
along the length of the mRNA adding more amino acids and elongating the polypetide
chain.
6.Golgi apparatus
This is a system of membranous compartments located between the endoplasmic
reticulum and the cell surface. They play an important role in processing, packaging and
distribution of materials, mainly proteins to and from other regions of the cell and to
and from outside the cell.
The Golgi system of a cell is made up of small parallel array of membrane enclosed
cisternae. The cisternae are sometimes curved giving the Golgi complex a distinct
polarity with both a convex face often oriented towards the nucleus and a concave face
towards the cell membrane.
The main processing activity of the Golgi complex is glycosylation, the addition of
sugar molecules to a protein to form glycoproteins. For some proteins, proteolytic
cleavage of some amino acids occurs in order to make the protein active.
Some secretory proteins leave the Golgi in small vesicles which fuse to form secretion
granules in which the proteins are stored before secretion. Other secretion products as
well as integral membrane proteins are carried in the Golgi-derived vesicles directly to
the cell surface.
 Functions of Golgi apparatus
●Modification of substances e.g. glycosylation of proteins
●Lipid metabolism- synthesis of glycolipids
● Transportation of proteins, lipids and polysaccharides to their final
destinations through secretory vesicles
●Support of cell structures
●Secretion of substances e.g. hormones, enzymes
●Temporary storage of substances before modification and secretion e.g. proteins

7.Lysosomes
These are small spherical bodies bound by a single membrane and are manufactured
by the Golgi apparatus. They contain hydrolytic enzymes including proteases, lipases,
nucleases and are used to break down unwanted chemicals, toxins, organelles or even
whole cells, so that the materials may be recycled. They are responsible for cell death
(autolysis). The pH within the lysosome is about pH 5 which is less than that of the
cytosol (~pH 7.2). The enzymes in the lysosome work best at an acid pH. This reduces
the risk of them digesting their own cell if they should escape from the lysosome.
Lysosomal storage diseases are caused by the accumulation of macromolecules
(proteins, polysaccharides, lipids) in the lysosomes because of a genetic failure to
manufacture an enzyme needed for their breakdown.

8.Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes also called microbodies are about the size of lysosomes, enclosed by a
 single membrane and are also filled with enzymes. However, peroxisomes bud off from
the endoplasmic reticulum, not the Golgi apparatus.
Some of the functions of the peroxisomes in the human liver:
● Breakdown of excess fatty acids.
● Breakdown of hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), a potentially dangerous product of
fatty-acid oxidation.
● Participates in the synthesis of cholesterol.
● Participates in the synthesis of bile acids.
● Participates in the synthesis of the lipids used to make myelin.
● Breakdown of excess purines to uric acid.
In plant cells peroxisomes participate in such functions as:
● symbiotic nitrogen fixation
● photorespiration

9.Centrioles
This is a set of short microtubules involved in cell division and found in close
association with the nucleus. Before each division the centriole replicates itself
and the two centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell, forming the spindle that
organizes and separates the chromosomes. In certain cells, they are needed for the
formation of cilia and flagella.

10.Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton consists of two structures: Microtubules and microfilaments.
Microtubules are composed of tubulin while microfilaments are composed of actin.
Microtubules have 3 main functions:
● They maintain the shape of the cell
● Serve as tracks for organelles to move along in the cell
● Formation of centrioles
The microfilaments are contractile and are common in motile cells. They are long
flexible ‘tails’ present in some cells and used for intercellular movement. Examples
include cilia and flagella. Flagellae are longer than the cell, and are usually only
one or two while cilia are much smaller and there are usually very many of them.

11. Microvilli
These are small finger-like extensions of the cell membrane found in some animal cells
(eg in epithelial cells of the gut), where they increase the surface area for absorption.

Plant cell organelles:

Although plant cells have all the eukaryotic cell organelles, they also have 3 additional
organelles not present in the animal cells. These are: cell wall, chloroplasts and central
vacuole.
Cell wall
The plant cell wall is a rigid structure made up of cellulose. Fungi have a cell wall made
up of chitin. The cell wall is freely permeable and has no effect on the movement of
substances across the cell. The rigidity of the cell wall helps both to support and protect
the plant.

Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are involved in photosynthesis. Each chloroplast encloses a system of
flattened, membranous sacs called thylakoids which contain chlorophyll. The thylakoids
are arranged in stacks called grana. The space between the grana is filled with
cytoplasm-like stroma. Chloroplasts contain DNA and 70s ribosomes and are semi-
autonomous organelles.

Central vacuole
Central vacuole is a large membrane bound sac that takes up most of the plant cells. It
serves as a storage area and may contain stored organic molecules as well as inorganic
ions. It also serves as a waste storage. It also provides support to the plant via osmotic
pressure. The vacuoles of some plants contain poisons such as tannins to discourage
animals from eating the leaves. Although cells of other organisms may also have
vacuoles, they are much smaller and are usually involved in food digestion. Some
unicellular protists have feeding vacuoles for digesting food, or contractile vacuoles for
expelling water (osmoregulation).

Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells

Small cells (<5µm) Larger cells (>10µm)
Always unicellular Often multicellular
No true nucleus or any membrane- Always have nucleus and other
bound organelles such as mitochondria. membrane-bound organelles.
DNA is circular, without proteins DNA is linear and associated with
proteins to
form chromatin.
Ribosomes are small Ribosomes are large
No cytoskeleton Always has a cytoskeleton
Motility by rigid rotating flagellum Motility by flexible waving cilia or flagella
Cell division is by binary fission Cell division is by mitosis or meiosis
Reproduction is always asexual Reproduction is asexual or sexual
Huge variety of metabolic pathways Common metabolic pathways.