ASSINGMEN

T NO:1
BASIC ELECTRONICS
SUBMITTED BY : JALAL KHALIL
SUBMITTED TO : SIR SIDDIQUE JAN
SEMESTER # 01
ROLL # 10
SECTION “B”
DATED : 4TH JAN 2011
 A light-emitting diode (LED) (pronounced /ˌɛl iː
ˈdiː/, L-E-D[1]) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in
many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962 early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern
versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with
very high brightness.

When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to
recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of
photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the
semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical
components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages
over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime,
improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and
reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require
more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of
comparable output.

Discoveries and early devices

Green electroluminescence from a point contact on a crystal of SiC recreates H. J.
Round's original experiment from 1907.

Electroluminescence was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J. Round of

Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide and a cat's-whisker detector.[4][5] Russian
Oleg Vladimirovich Losev independently reported on the creation of an LED in 1927.
His research was distributed in Russian, German and British scientific journals, but no
practical use was made of the discovery for several decades. Rubin Braunstein of the
Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium arsenide
(GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955. Braunstein observed infrared emission
generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide (GaSb), GaAs, indium
phosphide (InP), and silicon-germanium (SiGe) alloys at room temperature and at
77 kelvin.

In 1961, American experimenters Robert Biard and Gary Pittman working at Texas
Instruments, found that GaAs emitted infrared radiation when electric current was
applied and received the patent for the infrared LED.

The first practical visible-spectrum (red) LED was developed in 1962 by Nick Holonyak
Jr., while working at General Electric Company. Holonyak is seen as the "father of the
light-emitting diode". M. George Craford, a former graduate student of Holonyak,
invented the first yellow LED and improved the brightness of red and red-orange LEDs
by a factor of ten in 1972. In 1976, T.P. Pearsall created the first high-brightness, high
efficiency LEDs for optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor
materials specifically adapted to optical fiber transmission wavelengths.

Until 1968, visible and infrared LEDs were ex The Monsanto Company was the first
organization to mass-produce visible LEDs, using gallium arsenide phosphide in 1968
to produce red LEDs suitable for indicators. Hewlett Packard (HP) introduced LEDs in
1968, initially using GaAsP supplied by Monsanto. The technology proved to have major
uses for alphanumeric displays and was integrated into HP's early handheld
calculators. In the 1970s commercially successful LED devices at under five cents each
were produced by Fairchild Optoelectronics. These devices employed compound
semiconductor chips fabricated with the planar process invented by Dr. Jean Hoerni at
Fairchild Semiconductor. The combination of planar processing for chip fabrication and
innovative packaging methods enabled the team at Fairchild led by optoelectronics
pioneer Thomas Brandt to achieve the needed cost reductions. These methods continue
to be used by LED producers.

Types
LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The 5 mm cylindrical package (red,
fifth from the left) is the most common, estimated at 80% of world production. [citation
needed]
The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the actual color of light emitted,
but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and most
blue devices have clear housings. There are also LEDs in SMT packages, such as those
found on blinkies and on cell phone keypads (not shown).

The main types of LEDs are miniature, high power devices and custom designs such as
alphanumeric or multi-color.

Miniature

Different sized LEDs. 8 mm, 5 mm and 3 mm, with a wooden match-stick for scale.
Main article: Miniature light-emitting diode
These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various-sizes
from 2 mm to 8 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages. They are usually simple
in design, not requiring any separate cooling body.[71] Typical current ratings ranges
from around 1 mA to above 20 mA. The small scale sets a natural upper boundary on
power consumption due to heat caused by the high current density and need for heat
sinking.

Mid-range

Medium power LEDs are often through-hole mounted and used when an output of a
few lumen is needed. They sometimes have the diode mounted to four leads (two
cathode leads, two anode leads) for better heat conduction and carry an integrated lens.
An example of this is the Superflux package, from Philips Lumileds. These LEDs are
most commonly used in light panels, emergency lighting and automotive tail-lights. Due
to the larger amount of metal in the LED, they are able to handle higher currents
(around 100 mA). The higher current allows for the higher light output required for
tail-lights and emergency lighting.

High power

See also: Solid-state lighting and LED lamp

High-power light emitting diodes (Luxeon, Lumileds)

High power LEDs (HPLED) can be driven at currents from hundreds of mA to more
than an ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other LEDs. Some can emit over a
thousand lumens Since overheating is destructive, the HPLEDs must be mounted on a
heat sink to allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from a HPLED is not removed, the
device will fail in seconds. One HPLED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a
torch, or be set in an array to form a powerful LED lamp.

Some well-known HPLEDs in this category are the Lumileds Rebel Led, Osram Opto
Semiconductors Golden Dragon and Cree X-lamp. As of September 2009 some HPLEDs
manufactured by Cree Inc. now exceed 105 lm/W (e.g. the XLamp XP-G LED chip
emitting Cool White light) and are being sold in lamps intended to replace
incandescent, halogen, and even fluorescent lights, as LEDs grow more cost
competitive.

LEDs have been developed by Seoul Semiconductor that can operate on AC power
without the need for a DC converter. For each half cycle, part of the LED emits light and
part is dark, and this is reversed during the next half cycle. The efficacy of this type of
HPLED is typically 40 lm/W. A large number of LED elements in series may be able to
operate directly from line voltage. In 2009 Seoul Semiconductor released a high DC
voltage capable of being driven from AC power with a simple controlling circuit. The
low power dissipation of these LEDs affords them more flexibility than the original AC
LED design.
Application-specific variations

 Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external
electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an
integrated multivibrator circuit which causes the LED to flash with a typical
period of one second. In diffused lens LEDs this is visible as a small black dot.
Most flashing LEDs emit light of one color, but more sophisticated devices can
flash between multiple colors and even fade through a color sequence using RGB
color mixing.

 Bi-color LEDs are actually two different LEDs in one case. They consist of two dies
connected to the same two leads antiparallel to each other. Current flow in one
direction emits one color, and current in the opposite direction emits the other
color. Alternating the two colors with sufficient frequency causes the appearance
of a blended third color. For example, a red/green LED operated in this fashion
will color blend to emit a yellow appearance.

 Tri-color LEDs are two LEDs in one case, but the two LEDs are connected to
separate leads so that the two LEDs can be controlled independently and lit
simultaneously. A three-lead arrangement is typical with one common lead
(anode or cathode).[citation needed]

 RGB LEDs contain red, green and blue emitters, generally using a four-wire
connection with one common lead (anode or cathode). These LEDs can have
either common positive or common negative leads. Others however, have only
two leads (positive and negative) and have a built in tiny electronic control unit.

 Alphanumeric LED displays are available in seven-segment and starburst format.

Seven-segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst
displays can display all letters. Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread
use in the 1970s and 1980s, but rising use of liquid crystal displays, with their
lower power needs and greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of
numeric and alphanumeric LED displays.
PHOTO DIODE

A photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either current

or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.

Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be
either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical
fiber connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes
designed for use specifically as a photodiode will also use a PIN junction rather than the
typical PN junction.

A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy

strikes the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a free electron and a (positively
charged electron) hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or
one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the
built-in field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons
toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced.
Features

Response of a silicon photo diode vs wavelength of the incident light

Critical performance parameters of a photodiode include:

Responsivity
The ratio of generated photocurrent to incident light power, typically expressed
in A/W when used in photoconductive mode. The responsivity may also be
expressed as a Quantum efficiency, or the ratio of the number of photogenerated
carriers to incident photons and thus a unitless quantity.
Dark current
The current through the photodiode in the absence of light, when it is operated in
photoconductive mode. The dark current includes photocurrent generated by
background radiation and the saturation current of the semiconductor junction.
Dark current must be accounted for by calibration if a photodiode is used to make
an accurate optical power measurement, and it is also a source of noise when a
photodiode is used in an optical communication system.
Noise-equivalent power
(NEP) The minimum input optical power to generate photocurrent, equal to the
rms noise current in a 1 hertz bandwidth. The related characteristic detectivity
(D) is the inverse of NEP, 1/NEP; and the specific detectivity ( ) is the
detectivity normalized to the area (A) of the photodetector, . The
NEP is roughly the minimum detectable input power of a photodiode.

When a photodiode is used in an optical communication system, these parameters

contribute to the sensitivity of the optical receiver, which is the minimum input power
required for the receiver to achieve a specified bit error ratio.
Applications
P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors, such as
photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and photomultiplier tubes.

Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players,
smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions.

In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones that dim
the display when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often used rather
than photodiodes, although in principle either could be used.

Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and
industry. They generally have a better, more linear response than photoconductors.

They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for
computed tomography (coupled with scintillators) or instruments to analyze samples
(immunoassay). They are also used in pulse oximeters.

PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction diodes, and
hence are often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation.

P-N photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if
high sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices
or photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy,
night vision equipment and laser rangefinding.

P-N vs. P-I-N photodiodes

1. Due to the intrinsic layer, a PIN photodiode must be reverse biased (Vr). The Vr
increases the depletion region allowing a larger volume for electron-hole pair
production, and reduces the capacitance thereby increasing the bandwidth.
2. The Vr also introduces noise current, which reduces the S/N ratio. Therefore, a
reverse bias is recommended for higher bandwidth applications and/or
applications where a wide dynamic range is required.
3. A PN photodiode is more suitable for lower light applications because it allows
for unbiased operation.

≠The avalance photodiode now has a current gain introduced by the avalanche
multiplication factor.
Photodiode array

Hundreds or thousands (up to 2048) photodiodes of typical sensitive area 0.025 x 1

mm each arranged as a one-dimensional array, which can be used as a position sensor.
One advantage of photodiode arrays (PDAs) is that they allow for high speed parallel
read out since the driving electronics may not be built in like a traditional CMOS or CCD
sensor.