https://www.energystar.

gov/products/lighting_fans/light_bulbs/learn_about_led_bulbs

https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/electronic_components/diode/light-emitting-diode-led.php

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_8.html

The Light Emitting Diode

Light Emitting Diodes or simply LED´s, are among the most widely used of all the
different types of semiconductor diodes available today and are commonly used in TV’s
and colour displays.

They are the most visible type of diode, that emit a fairly narrow bandwidth of
either visible light at different coloured wavelengths, invisible infra-red light for
remote controls or laser type light when a forward current is passed through
them.
The “Light Emitting Diode” or LED as it is more commonly called, is basically
just a specialised type of diode as they have very similar electrical
characteristics to a PN junction diode. This means that an LED will pass
current in its forward direction but block the flow of current in the reverse
direction.
Light emitting diodes are made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped
semiconductor material and depending on the semiconductor material used
and the amount of doping, when forward biased an LED will emit a coloured
light at a particular spectral wavelength.
When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors
conduction band recombine with holes from the valence band releasing
sufficient energy to produce photons which emit a monochromatic (single
colour) of light. Because of this thin layer a reasonable number of these
photons can leave the junction and radiate away producing a coloured light
output.
 LED Construction
Then we can say that when operated in a forward biased direction Light
Emitting Diodes are semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy
into light energy.
The construction of a Light Emitting Diode is very different from that of a
normal signal diode. The PN junction of an LED is surrounded by a
transparent, hard plastic epoxy resin hemispherical shaped shell or body
which protects the LED from both vibration and shock.
Surprisingly, an LED junction does not actually emit that much light so the
epoxy resin body is constructed in such a way that the photons of light emitted
by the junction are reflected away from the surrounding substrate base to
which the diode is attached and are focused upwards through the domed top
of the LED, which itself acts like a lens concentrating the amount of light. This
is why the emitted light appears to be brightest at the top of the LED.
However, not all LEDs are made with a hemispherical shaped dome for their
epoxy shell. Some indication LEDs have a rectangular or cylindrical shaped
construction that has a flat surface on top or their body is shaped into a bar or
arrow. Generally, all LED’s are manufactured with two legs protruding from
the bottom of the body.
Also, nearly all modern light emitting diodes have their cathode, ( – ) terminal
identified by either a notch or flat spot on the body or by the cathode lead
being shorter than the other as the anode ( + ) lead is longer than the cathode
(k).
Unlike normal incandescent lamps and bulbs which generate large amounts of
heat when illuminated, the light emitting diode produces a “cold” generation of
light which leads to high efficiencies than the normal “light bulb” because most
of the generated energy radiates away within the visible spectrum. Because
LEDs are solid-state devices, they can be extremely small and durable and
provide much longer lamp life than normal light sources.
Light Emitting Diode Colours
So how does a light emitting diode get its colour. Unlike normal signal diodes
which are made for detection or power rectification, and which are made from
either Germanium or Silicon semiconductor materials, Light Emitting
Diodes are made from exotic semiconductor compounds such as Gallium
Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Phosphide (GaP), Gallium Arsenide Phosphide
(GaAsP), Silicon Carbide (SiC) or Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) all mixed
together at different ratios to produce a distinct wavelength of colour.
Different LED compounds emit light in specific regions of the visible light
spectrum and therefore produce different intensity levels. The exact choice of
the semiconductor material used will determine the overall wavelength of the
photon light emissions and therefore the resulting colour of the light emitted.

Light Emitting Diode Colours

Typical LED Characteristics

Semiconductor
Wavelength Colour VF @ 20mA
Material

GaAs 850-940nm Infra-Red 1.2v

GaAsP 630-660nm Red 1.8v

GaAsP 605-620nm Amber 2.0v

GaAsP:N 585-595nm Yellow 2.2v

 AlGaP 550-570nm Green 3.5v

SiC 430-505nm Blue 3.6v

GaInN 450nm White 4.0v

Thus, the actual colour of a light emitting diode is determined by the

wavelength of the light emitted, which in turn is determined by the actual
semiconductor compound used in forming the PN junction during
manufacture.
Therefore the colour of the light emitted by an LED is NOT determined by the
colouring of the LED’s plastic body although these are slightly coloured to
both enhance the light output and to indicate its colour when its not being
illuminated by an electrical supply.
Light emitting diodes are available in a wide range of colours with the most
common being RED, AMBER, YELLOW and GREEN and are thus widely
used as visual indicators and as moving light displays.
Recently developed blue and white coloured LEDs are also available but
these tend to be much more expensive than the normal standard colours due
to the production costs of mixing together two or more complementary colours
at an exact ratio within the semiconductor compound and also by injecting
nitrogen atoms into the crystal structure during the doping process.
From the table above we can see that the main P-type dopant used in the
manufacture of Light Emitting Diodes is Gallium (Ga, atomic number 31)
and that the main N-type dopant used is Arsenic (As, atomic number 33)
giving the resulting compound of Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) crystalline
structure.
The problem with using Gallium Arsenide on its own as the semiconductor
compound is that it radiates large amounts of low brightness infra-red
radiation (850nm-940nm approx.) from its junction when a forward current is
flowing through it.
The amount of infra-red light it produces is okay for television remote controls
but not very useful if we want to use the LED as an indicating light. But by
adding Phosphorus (P, atomic number 15), as a third dopant the overall
wavelength of the emitted radiation is reduced to below 680nm giving visible
red light to the human eye. Further refinements in the doping process of the
PN junction have resulted in a range of colours spanning the spectrum of
visible light as we have seen above as well as infra-red and ultra-violet
wavelengths.
By mixing together a variety of semiconductor, metal and gas compounds the
following list of LEDs can be produced.

Types of Light Emitting Diode

Like conventional PN junction diodes, light emitting diodes are current-
dependent devices with its forward voltage drop VF, depending on the
semiconductor compound (its light colour) and on the forward biased LED
current. Most common LED’s require a forward operating voltage of between
approximately 1.2 to 3.6 volts with a forward current rating of about 10 to 30
mA, with 12 to 20 mA being the most common range.
Both the forward operating voltage and forward current vary depending on the
semiconductor material used but the point where conduction begins and light
is produced is about 1.2V for a standard red LED to about 3.6V for a blue
LED.
The exact voltage drop will of course depend on the manufacturer because of
the different dopant materials and wavelengths used. The voltage drop across
the LED at a particular current value, for example 20mA, will also depend on
the initial conduction VF point. As an LED is effectively a diode, its forward
current to voltage characteristics curves can be plotted for each diode colour
as shown below.
Light Emitting Diodes I-V Characteristics.

Light Emitting Diode (LED) Schematic symbol and I-V Characteristics Curves
showing the different colours available.
Before a light emitting diode can “emit” any form of light it needs a current to
flow through it, as it is a current dependant device with their light output
intensity being directly proportional to the forward current flowing through the
LED.
As the LED is to be connected in a forward bias condition across a power
supply it should be current limited using a series resistor to protect it from
excessive current flow. Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power
supply as it will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will
pass through and burn it out.
From the table above we can see that each LED has its own forward voltage
drop across the PN junction and this parameter which is determined by the
semiconductor material used, is the forward voltage drop for a specified
amount of forward conduction current, typically for a forward current of 20mA.
In most cases LEDs are operated from a low voltage DC supply, with a series
resistor, RS used to limit the forward current to a safe value from say 5mA for
a simple LED indicator to 30mA or more where a high brightness light output
is needed.
LED Series Resistance.
The series resistor value RS is calculated by simply using Ohm´s Law, by
knowing the required forward current IF of the LED, the supply
voltage VS across the combination and the expected forward voltage drop of
the LED, VF at the required current level, the current limiting resistor is
calculated as:

LED Series Resistor Circuit

Light Emitting Diode Example No1

An amber coloured LED with a forward volt drop of 2 volts is to be connected
to a 5.0v stabilised DC power supply. Using the circuit above calculate the
value of the series resistor required to limit the forward current to less than
10mA. Also calculate the current flowing through the diode if a 100Ω series
resistor is used instead of the calculated first.
1). series resistor required at 10mA.

2). with a 100Ω series resistor.

We remember from the Resistors tutorials, that resistors come in standard
preferred values. Our first calculation above shows that to limit the current
flowing through the LED to 10mA exactly, we would require a 300Ω resistor. In
the E12 series of resistors there is no 300Ω resistor so we would need to
choose the next highest value, which is 330Ω. A quick re-calculation shows
the new forward current value is now 9.1mA, and this is ok.

Connecting LEDs Together in Series

We can connect LED’s together in series to increase the number required or
to increase the light level when used in displays. As with series resistors,
LED’s connected in series all have the same forward current, IF flowing
through them as just one. As all the LEDs connected in series pass the same
current it is generally best if they are all of the same colour or type.

Connecting LED’s in Series

Although the LED series chain has the same current flowing through it, the
series voltage drop across them needs to be considered when calculating the
required resistance of the current limiting resistor, RS. If we assume that each
LED has a voltage drop across it when illuminated of 1.2 volts, then the
voltage drop across all three will be 3 x 1.2v = 3.6 volts.
If we also assume that the three LEDs are to be illuminated from the same 5
volt logic device or supply with a forward current of about 10mA, the same as
above. Then the voltage drop across the resistor, RS and its resistance value
will be calculated as:

Again, in the E12 (10% tolerance) series of resistors there is no 140Ω resistor
so we would need to choose the next highest value, which is 150Ω.

LED Driver Circuits

Now that we know what is an LED, we need some way of controlling it by
switching it “ON” and “OFF”. The output stages of both TTL and CMOS logic
gates can both source and sink useful amounts of current therefore can be
used to drive an LED. Normal integrated circuits (ICs) have an output drive
current of up to 50mA in the sink mode configuration, but have an internally
limited output current of about 30mA in the source mode configuration.
Either way the LED current must be limited to a safe value using a series
resistor as we have already seen. Below are some examples of driving light
emitting diodes using inverting ICs but the idea is the same for any type of
integrated circuit output whether combinational or sequential.
IC Driver Circuit

If more than one LED requires driving at the same time, such as in large LED
arrays, or the load current is to high for the integrated circuit or we may just
want to use discrete components instead of ICs, then an alternative way of
driving the LEDs using either bipolar NPN or PNP transistors as switches is
given below. Again as before, a series resistor, RS is required to limit the LED
current.