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Light

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vizokgaming
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Hutchings Junior College

Led Lights
by

Rinfela Chhakchhuak
XI Science
Roll no. 16
Year of Study 2024-2025
Table of Content
Cover Page
Table of content
Acknowledgements
Certificate
Introduction
History & Development
Mechanisms of LEDs
Components of LEDs
Introduction to LED technology
Semiconductors
Principle of LED emission
Metalorganic Chemical Vapour Deposition
How White LEDs are made
RGB in LED Lighting
MicroLEDS
OLEDs
Applications
Conclusion
References
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my gratitude to the following organizations and
individuals for their invaluable support in completing this research
project.

First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to our physics


teacher for her support and guidance throughout the making of this
project.

I am also grateful to my friend Manna Lairenlakpam for his assistance


with data collection, analysis, and interpretation, which made the
study possible.

Finally, I thank the Youtube channel Veritasium for inspiring the topic
that I will be presenting.
Certificate

This is to certify that Rinfela Chhakchhuak of Class XI


science has successfully completed his project work for
the academic session 2024-2025, under the guidance
of the subject teacher in the given period of time.

Subject Teacher Chief Examiner

Principal Headmaster
Introduction
Light-Emitting Diodes (LED) In the simplest terms, is a semiconductor device that
emits light when an electric current is passed through it. Light is produced when
the particles that carry the current (known as electrons and holes) combine
together within the semiconductor material.

Since light is generated within the solid semiconductor material, LEDs are
described as solid-state devices. The term solid-state lighting, which also
encompasses organic LEDs (OLEDs), distinguishes this lighting technology from
other sources that use heated filaments (incandescent and tungsten halogen
lamps) or gas discharge (fluorescent lamps).

LEDs are very energy-efficient,


producing more light with less heat and
at a lower cost than traditional lighting.
On average, an LED light consumes 85%
less electricity than the average
incandescent bulb and about 18% less
than the average fluorescent lamps
while outputting the same amount of
light. Their high efficiency and
directional light output make LED lights
particularly suitable for various
industrial applications. As a result, LED
lights are increasingly getting used in
streetlights, parking garages, walkways,
outdoor areas, refrigerated displays,
modular lighting systems, and task
lighting.

In this paper, the history and development of the invention of the LED bulb,
analysing the science and functioning of it. It will also analyse the benefits of LED
lighting, including its energy efficiency, longevity, and environmental impact.
Through this overview, this paper aims to demonstrate why LEDs are considered
the future of lighting.
History & Development
Before the invention of LED bulbs, less-efficient incandescent and fluorescent
lights were the mainstays of both commercial and residential lighting. Today,
LED technology is advancing more quickly than any type of light bulb before it.
Thanks to LED innovations, electricity usage can be greatly reduced, helping the
planet while helping companies reduce overhead costs. Egon Loebner and Rubin
Braunstein create the first green LED in 1958.

The next year, in 1962, Nick Holonyak,


Jr. (the “Father of the Light-Emitting
Diode”) while working at General
Electric, on Oct. 9, 1962,
demonstrated the first visible-light-
emitting diode. While infrared LEDs
previously had been made of the
material gallium arsenide, Holonyak
created crystals of gallium arsenide
phosphide to make an LED that would
emit a visible red light.

Throughout the 1960s, researchers and engineers continued experimenting


with semiconductors with the goal of producing more efficient LEDs. As they
experimented with different chemical substrates, bright red and orange LEDs
came into production.
But for decades, all we had were those colours. If the blue LED was created it
could allow all the other colours to be made which would allow LEDs to be used
in everything from smartphones, computers, billboards, etc. Throughout the
1960s every big electronics company in the world, from IBM to GE to Panasonic
raced to create the LED, knowing that it would be worth billions. Red and green
LEDs might still have been the only two colours today if it had not been for Shuji
Nakamura who made radical breakthroughs to create the first blue LED, winning
him a Nobel Prize.
Mechanism of LEDs
Before we talk about how an LED bulb manages to emit light, it is essential to
first examine the different components that it would usually have for it to be
able to turn electrical current into light energy.

Components of an LED Bulb

1. LED Chip - LED chips do the heavy lifting of creating light. They look like
small yellow circles attached to a piece of metal, also known as a printed
circuit board or PCB. TCP engineers use two main types of chip
configurations: Chip on Board (COB), a single LED chip on PCB that creates
a clean, uniform beam pattern and Discrete LEDs, multiple LED chips
placed on PCB to achieve a desired lumen (brightness) output.
2. Epoxy Lens - Due to the brightness of LEDs, a covering component is
added to evenly distribute the light. This cover is called a lens on single-
direction lamps and optics on omni-directional lamps. These components
are typically made of shatter-resistant plastic and help give LEDs the
familiar look and feel of more traditional bulbs.
3. Bond Wire - Wire bonding, which is used to transmit power and signal
between substrates and chips, is vital to interconnect die-to-substrate in
LED packaging. Bonding wires also help dissipate heat during LED
operation. The basic requirements of the bonding wire are high thermal
conductivity, low electrical resistance, good ductility, and sufficient
strength.
4. Reflective Cavity - An optical cavity, resonating cavity or optical resonator
is an arrangement of mirrors or other optical elements that forms a cavity
resonator for light waves. Optical cavities are a major component of LEDs,
surrounding the gain medium and providing feedback of a laser light.
Introduction to LED Technology

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when


current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with
electron holes, particles that are missing an electron. The colour of the light is
determined by the energy required for electrons to cross the band gap, a range
in a solid where no electrons can exist, of the semiconductor. White light is
obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting phosphor
on the semiconductor device.

Diodes are made of semiconductors, and they direct the flow of charge - which
can only flow in one direction. The two types of charges that flow are electrons
and electron holes. When the two meet, the electron falls into a lower energy
level, and the extra energy is released as a photon. If the photon is the right
frequency (which can depend on the LED in question), we will see this as light.
Inside the semiconductor material of the LED, the electrons and holes are
contained within energy bands.
These semiconductors are made up of elements from group III and group V of
the periodic table (these are known as III-V materials). Examples of III-V
materials commonly used to make LEDs are gallium arsenide (GaAs) and gallium
phosphide (GaP).
Until the mid-90s LEDs had a limited range of colours, and in particular
commercial blue and white LEDs did not exist. The development of LEDs based
on the gallium nitride (GaN) material system completed the palette of colours
and opened up many new applications.
The main semiconductor materials used to manufacture LEDs
are:
• Gallium nitride (GaN): Gallium Nitride is a binary III/V direct bandgap
semiconductor that is well-suited for high-power transistors capable of
operating at high temperatures. Since the 1990s, it has been used
commonly in light emitting diodes (LED). Gallium nitride gives off a blue
light used for disc-reading in Blu-ray. Additionally, gallium nitride is used
in semiconductor power devices, RF components, lasers, and photonics.
In the future, we will see GaN in sensor technology.

• Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP): AlGaInP is used in


structures for high-brightness red, orange, green, and yellow light-
emitting diodes. It is also used to make diode lasers.

• Gallium phosphide (GaP): Gallium phosphide has been used in the


manufacture of low-cost red, orange, and green light-emitting diodes
(LEDs) with low to medium brightness since the 1960s. It is used
standalone or together with gallium arsenide phosphide. Pure GaP LEDs
emit green light.

Indium Gallium Nitride Aluminium Gallium Indium Phosphide

Gallium Phosphide
Semiconductors
Semiconductors have revolutionized electronics, enabling devices like
smartphones and solar panels. Central to this technology are n-type and p-type
semiconductors, which, created through doping, are fundamental to modern
electronic devices. N-type semiconductors have an excess of electrons, while p-
type semiconductors have an excess of "holes" where an electron could exist.

N-type semiconductors
N-type semiconductors are materials engineered to exhibit unique electrical
properties by introducing specific impurities, or dopants, into the crystal
structure. These dopants, typically from group V of the periodic table, such as
phosphorus or arsenic, provide extra electrons to the material, significantly
altering its electrical characteristics.

P-type semiconductors
P-type semiconductors are a fundamental building block of modern electronics.
They are created by introducing specific impurities, called acceptor dopants, into
the crystal structure of an intrinsic semiconductor. These dopants, have a
significant impact on the electrical properties of the material. Acceptor dopants
have one fewer valence electrons compared to the host semiconductor atoms .
When incorporated into the lattice, they create "holes" within the crystal
structure. Imagine a vacancy where an electron should be - this vacancy acts as
a positive charge carrier. In simpler terms, the dopant "borrows" an electron
from a neighboring atom, leaving behind a hole that can move freely.

The presence of these holes alters the internal energy distribution of the
semiconductor, represented by its band structure and Fermi level. In an intrinsic
semiconductor, the Fermi level sits roughly in the middle. However, p-type
doping introduces energy states near the top of the valence band, readily
occupied by electrons, creating more holes. This shift in the Fermi level reflects
the increased number of holes compared to electrons.
Principle of LED emission
Figure 1 shows the principle of LED light-emitting. The active layer sandwiched
between the p- and n-type semiconductors is formed on a sapphire substrate,
and voltage is applied across the p-n junction from the electrodes. When
forward voltage is applied, electrons combine with holes at the p-n junction and
disappear. At this time, an electron transits from higher energy state to lower
state and the excess energy is released as a light.

Figure 2 explains why emission wavelengths are different among semiconductor


materials. Combining of holes and electrons at the p-n junction means that the
electrons fall from the conduction band to the valence band. When the energy
difference between the both bands is greater, a higher-energy light, i.e. a
shorter wavelength light is emitted. Since the energy difference(band gap)
depends on the semiconductor material, the LED materials are selected on the
basis of the band gap to meet the desired colour.
Metalorganic Chemical Vapour Deposition

It is a chemical vapour deposition method used to produce single- or


polycrystalline thin films. It is a process for growing crystalline layers to create
complex semiconductor multilayer structures. The growth of crystals is by
chemical reaction and not physical deposition. This takes place not in vacuum,
but from the gas phase at moderate pressures (10 to 760 Torr). As such, this
technique is preferred for the formation of devices incorporating
thermodynamically metastable alloys, and it has become a major process in the
manufacture of optoelectronics, such as light-emitting diodes (LED).
MOCVD systems have evolved to meet the demands for GaN-based light-
emitting diodes (LEDs) and electronic devices. Gallium Nitride was hard to made
a high quality crystal, its substrate for growing, sapphire had a mismatch of 16%,
resulting in >10,00,000,000 defects/cm^2, it also only had an n-type crystal
structure. But instead of growing GaN directly on sapphire, if it was grown on a
buffer layer of aluminium nitride would allow a lattice spacing in-between that
would allow a clean gallium nitride crystal to be able to form on top. The only
issue is that the aluminium causes issues to the MOCVD system.

The solution is to add a nozzle to the MOCVD reactor which would release a
downward stream of inert gases of N2 + H2, so that that gallium nitride reactant
gases, which would mix in the air to form powdery wastes, pinning the first flow
of the substrate to form uniform crystals. Prior to this, it was avoided by most
scientist as they suspected it would more turbulence to the system. T his is the
called two-flow system.
This would allow the gallium nitride layer to be so smooth and stable it could be
used as a buffer layer on the sapphire substrate instead of the aluminium nitride
buffer layer that was previously used before, which would cause problems,
which would yield an even cleaner crystal of gallium nitride on top.
To create p-type gallium nitride, dope a gallium nitride with magnesium and
heating the block to 400 degrees Celsius, a process known as annealing. The
result would be a complete p-type sample. The reason for why it is heated it
because when ammonia is added to the MOCVD reactor, its hydrogen atom
bonds with the magnesium, plugging the holes. Adding energy, or heat, empties
up the holes.
A known trick to increase the efficiency of LEDs was to create to create a well, a
thin layer of material at the p-n junction called an active layer which would
reduce the band gap a little bit, which would allow the electrons at the n-type
band to the p-type valence band. Adding indium gallium nitride to the MOCVD
reactor would work in such a case.
A side-effect of this well is that it would make an overflow of electrons at this
thin gap, leaking them back to the gallium nitride layer. To resolve this issue,
was to create a hill, a compound with a large band gap that could block electrons
from escaping from the well once inside.
How is white LED made?
There are two ways to obtain white light from LEDs.
• The first is the way to irradiate a yellow phosphor by a blue LED. Since
yellow is complementary colour of blue, the mixture of the blue and
yellow looks white. Though this method is most popular because of easy
fabrication and high intensity, there is a weak point in the slightly bluish
colour.

• The seconds way to use three LEDs of blue, green, and red. Because the
light is intense and any colour can be produced, this method is applied to
a large display and an LED screen.
RGB in LED Lighting

RGB LED lighting systems are built on the principle of combining individual LEDs
that emit red, green, and blue light. Each of these LEDs can be controlled
independently, allowing the system to adjust the intensity of each colour. By
precisely varying the intensity of these three primary colours, an RGB LED
system can create an extensive palette of colours. The combination process is
based on the additive colour model, where the overlapping of different
wavelengths of light results in the perception of different colours.

The basic principle of RGB LED lighting relies on additive colour mixing. For
instance, when red and green LEDs are combined at equal intensity, the light
appears yellow to the human eye. Similarly, combining green and blue produces
cyan, and red and blue produce magenta. By mixing all three colours at full
intensity, the system generates white light. Intermediate colours can be
achieved by adjusting the relative intensities of the red, green, and blue
components. This flexibility makes RGB LED systems highly versatile for creating
a wide range of colours.

RGB LED lighting systems are also often equipped with dials that allow users to
adjust the colour output dynamically. This control can be achieved through
various means, including manual adjustments, remote controls, or even through
automated systems connected to smart home networks.
The Emergence of Micro LEDs

Amid rapid technological advancement, devices have become smaller, faster,


and more efficient. Display technology, in particular, has evolved from bulky
cathode ray tubes to advanced options like OLEDs. Recently, microLEDs have
emerged, offering significant improvements in brightness, colour gamut,
contrast, response time, longevity, and energy efficiency. These advancements
hold promise for a wide range of applications, from personal gadgets and
automotive displays to high-speed communication networks.

• High luminance: Luminance in emissive devices like OLEDs can be


increased by raising input current up to a point, after which the device
starts to suffer from efficiency rolloff, fast aging, and may require careful
thermal management. MicroLEDs can carry large current densities and
achieve much higher luminance with high efficiency while maintaining a
slimmer profile.

• Independent pixel control: Each pixel in a microLED display can be driven


independently to directly control its on and off state, whereas OLEDs rely
on organic materials to emit or extinguish light.

• Stability and robustness: MicroLEDs, built with durable GaN materials,


offer superior stability without complex encapsulation. Unlike OLEDs and
LCDs, which suffer under extreme temperatures, microLEDs provide
excellent luminance and longevity, ideal for harsh conditions.
OLEDs

An OLED is a solid-state device consisting of a thin, carbon-based semiconductor


layer that emits light when electricity is applied by adjacent electrodes. In order
for light to escape from the device, at least one of the electrodes must be
transparent. The intensity of the light emitted is controlled by the amount of
electric current applied by the electrodes, and the light's color is determined by
the type of emissive material used.
OLEDs are fundamentally different from LEDs, which are based on a p-n diode
structure. In LEDs, doping is used to create p- and n-regions by changing the
conductivity of the host semiconductor. OLEDs do not employ a p-n structure.
Doping of OLEDs is used to increase radiative efficiency by direct modification of
the quantum-mechanical optical recombination rate. Doping is additionally used
to determine the wavelength of photon emission.
An OLED display works without a backlight because it emits its own visible light.
Thus, it can display deep black levels and can be thinner and lighter than a liquid
crystal display (LCD). In low ambient light conditions (such as a dark room), an
OLED screen can achieve a higher contrast ratio than an LCD, regardless of
whether the LCD uses cold cathode fluorescent lamps or an LED backlight.
Applications

Display
LED display boards are common these days and are used outdoors like storage
signs, billboards, road signs, etc. In sign boards, which have multiple languages
conveying signals, the use of more LEDs will be beneficial in terms of less power
consumption. The backlight design of the smartphone may be slimmer and less
expensive They provide greater battery life due to the lower output voltage.

Automotive Lights
The Use of LEDs in the automotive industry is growing. With LEDs, energy is
saved and there is clearer visibility. These are extensively used in the back and
rear of an automobile for better accessibility. LED lighting can improve the safety
of pedestrians and drivers as it enhances visibility when it is ON, OFF, and
dimmed in any part of the journey.

Digital Clocks
LEDs are used in self-luminous seven-segment alpha-numeric displays of
calculators and digital clocks and meters, signages, CD players, CDROM drives,
laser printers, bar code scanners, laser pointers, etc.

Other Uses
• Camera flashes and automotive heat lamps
• Aviation lighting
• Digital computers and calculators
• Traffic signals and Burglar alarms systems
• Microprocessors and multiplexers
• Optical Communication
• Indicator lamps in electric equipment
Conclusion
In conclusion, through the exploration of LED lighting technology, it is clear that
LEDs represent a significant advancement in lighting, both in terms of efficiency
and versatility. The shift from traditional incandescent and fluorescent bulbs to
LEDs has revolutionized energy consumption in lighting applications. LEDs offer
substantial energy savings, longer lifespans, and reduced environmental impact,
making them a crucial component in the transition towards more sustainable
technologies.

The science behind LEDs, particularly their reliance on semiconductors and the
ability to emit various colours through RGB technology, highlights the innovative
processes that have driven their development. The introduction of advanced
variants such as microLEDs and OLEDs further expands their potential, offering
superior brightness, color accuracy, and energy efficiency for a wide range of
applications, from consumer electronics to automotive lighting.

In conclusion, LED technology is not only a replacement for traditional lighting;


it is a transformative technology that offers broader possibilities in design and
functionality. As research continues and technologies such as microLEDs
become more mainstream, we can expect LEDs to play an even more central
role in the future of lighting and display technologies. Their impact on energy
consumption, cost savings, and environmental sustainability makes them
indispensable in our modern world.
References
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AF8d72mA41M&t=1061s
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode#Applications
https://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/325762/how-efficient-are-
leds
https://www.wevolver.com/article/n-type-vs-p-type
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/metal-organic-chemical-
vapor-deposition
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallium_nitride
https://www.ledsmagazine.com/leds-ssl-
design/materials/article/16701292/what-is-an-led
https://www.fiberlabs.com/glossary/light-emitting-diode/
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211379722002029
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep45726
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/bonding-
wire#:~:text=Wire%20bonding%2C%20which%20is%20used,dissipate%20heat
%20during%20LED%20operation.
https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/118nns/how_do_leds_emit_
such_enormous_light_without/

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