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MATH39001 - Combinatorics and Graph Theory - Exam - Jan-2010

The document discusses combinatorics and graph theory concepts. It contains solutions to exam problems involving trees, flows in networks, generating functions, and recurrence relations. Specifically, it finds spanning trees of a graph, calculates flows and cuts in a network, derives properties of ordinary and exponential generating functions, and solves recurrences to determine sequences.

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478 views10 pages

MATH39001 - Combinatorics and Graph Theory - Exam - Jan-2010

The document discusses combinatorics and graph theory concepts. It contains solutions to exam problems involving trees, flows in networks, generating functions, and recurrence relations. Specifically, it finds spanning trees of a graph, calculates flows and cuts in a network, derives properties of ordinary and exponential generating functions, and solves recurrences to determine sequences.

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scribd6289
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
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Combinatorics and Graph Theory

Exam - 28 January 2010


Michael Bushell
michael.bushell@student.manchester.ac.uk
December 23, 2012
1
2
(1) (a) (i) A tree is a connected, acyclic graph.
(ii) Let G = (V, E). A subgraph of G is a graph G

= (V

, E

) such
that V

V and E

E. A spanning tree of G is a subgraph


of G which contains all vertices of G and which is also a tree.
(b) See Theorem 1.1 in lecture notes.
(c) Using the method of spanning trees, we have the following spanning
trees containing the edge sa or bc on the path from s to t.
s
a
b
c
t
2
3
2
2
s
a
b
c
t
2
3
2
1
s
a
b
c
t
2
4
2
1
s
a
b
c
t
2
4
2
2
s
a
b
c
t
2
4 3
2
s
a
b
c
t
2
4 3
1
s
a
b
c
t
2
3
2 1
s
a
b
c
t
2
4
2 1
With respective weights 1/24, 1/12, 1/16, 1/32, 1/48, 1/24, 1/12, 1/16.
The edge sa appears in every tree on the path from s to t, so
I
sa
= (1/24+1/12+1/16+1/32+1/48+1/24+1/12+1/16) = 41/96
The edge bc appears positively in the 2
nd
tree and negatively in 4
th
3
tree, so
I
bc
= (1/12 1/32) = 5/96
We are given that I
bc
= 1, hence = 96/5.
Therefore
I
sa
= 41/96 = (41/96)(96/5) = 8.2
4
(2) (a) Given a directed graph G = (V, E), a ow is a function f : E R
such that
(x, y) E : 0 f(x, y) c(x, y), and
x V \{s, t} we have

xyE
f(x, y) =

yxE
f(y, x)
(b) Let (S, T) be a cut of G, then
v(f) =

syE
f(s, y)

ysE
f(y, s)
=

xS
_

xyE
f(x, y)

yxE
f(y, x)
_
Because for all terms except when x = s, the value inside the large
brackets is equal to 0 by the denition of a ow. We can rewrite this
as follows
v(f) =

xS,yV,xyE
f(x, y)

xS,yV,yxE
f(y, x)
For every edge (x, y) such that x, y S, the value +f(x, y) appears
precisely once in the left sum and f(x, y) appears precisely once in
the right sum, cancelling each other.
This just laves the edges (x, y) such that x S, y T, hence
v(f) =

xS,yT,xyE
f(x, y)

xS,yT,yxE
f(y, x)

xS,yT,xyE
f(x, y)

xS,yT,xyE
c(x, y)
= c(S, T)
Therefore, the value of any ow is less than or equal to the capacity
of any cut.
(c) The following ow can be found
5
s
a
c
e
b
d
f
t
9(10)
1(1)
2(2)
9(10)
2(2)
3(3) 4(4) 0(3)
2(2)
1(5) 2(2) 1(2)
2(2)
5(7)
6(10)
by starting from an empty ow, and using the augmenting paths and
increments as follows
path s, a, b, t, increment = 4,
path s, a, b, d, t, increment = 2,
path s, a, b, d, e, f, t, increment = 1,
path s, a, b, c, d, e, f, t, increment = 1,
path s, a, b, c, e, f, t, increment = 1,
path s, c, d, f, t, increment = 1,
path s, e, f, t, increment = 2.
giving a ow of value 12.
We can check by nding the cut (using notation as in the lecture
notes)
S
0
= {s}, S
1
= {s, a}, S
2
= {s, a, b}, S
3
= {s, a, b}
hence
(S, T) = ({s, a, b}, {c, d, e, f, t})
is the required cut whose capacity is
c(S, T) = 1
..
sc
+ 2
..
se
+ 2
..
bc
+ 3
..
bd
+ 4
..
bt
= 12
as expected (edges labelled under their capacities).
(d) See Theorem 2.6 in lecture notes.
6
(3) (a) A sequence {a
n
}

n=0
has ordinary power series generating function
given by the formal power series

n=0
a
n
x
n
.
(b) If f(x) =

n0
a
n
x
n
ops
{a
n
}
n0
, then
f

(x) =

n0
na
n
x
n1
hence, working from the deniton
{na
n
}
n0
ops

n0
na
n
x
n
= x

n0
na
n
x
n1
= xf

(x)
as claimed.
(c) If f(x)
ops
{a
n
}
n0
and g(x)
ops
{b
n
}
n0
, then
f(x)g(x) =
_

n0
a
n
x
n
__

n0
b
n
x
n
_
=

n0
_
n

k=0
a
k
b
nk
_
x
n
ops

_
n

k=0
a
k
b
nk
_
n0
by denition.
(d) Using standard results of geometric series
{1}
n0
ops

n0
x
n
=
1
1 x
then by applying (b) twice
{n}
n0
ops
x
d
dx
_
1
1 x
_
=
x
(1 x)
2
{n
2
}
n0
ops
x
d
dx
_
x
(1 x)
2
_
=
x(1 + x)
(1 x)
3
7
so by denition
{n
2
n + 1}
n0
ops

n0
(n
2
n + 1)x
n
=

n0
n
2
x
n

n0
nx
n
+

n0
x
n
=
1
1 x

x
(1 x)
2
+
x(1 + x)
(1 x)
3
=
1 + 2x 3x
2
(1 x)
3
(e) Write
{a
n
}
n0
ops

n0
a
n
x
n
= A(x)
then
{a
n+k
}
n0
ops

n0
a
n+k
x
n
=
A(x) a
0
a
1
x a
k1
x
k1
x
k
so using this and the recurrence relation gives
A(x) a
0
a
1
x
x
2
= 6
A(x) a
0
x
8A(x)
hence
A(x) =
2x + 1
(1 2x)(1 4x)
=
3
1 4x

2
1 2x
= 3

n0
(4x)
n
2

n0
(2x)
n
=

n0
(3 4
n
2 2
n
)x
n
ops
{3 4
n
2 2
n
}
n0
therefore
a
n
= 3 4
n
2 2
n
since the sequence uniquely determines the generating function.
8
(f) Dene
a
n
= (1)
n
_
2010
n
_
, b
n
=
_
2010 + n
2010
_
for n 0, then
{a
n
}
n0
ops

n0
_
2010
n
_
(1)
n
x
n
=
2010

n=0
_
2010
n
_
(x)
n
=(1 x)
2010
where summation is over 0 n 2010 since the binomial coecients
are 0 for n > 2010, and the nal step follows from the binomial
theorem.
We also have
{b
n
}
n0
ops

n0
_
2010 + n
2010
_
x
n
=
1
(1 x)
2011
using the identity given in the question.
Hence, using the product formula in (c), we have
_
n

k=0
a
k
b
nk
_
ops
(1 x)
2010

1
(1 x)
2011
=
1
1 x
ops
{1}
n0
Therefore, since the sequence uniquely determines the generating
function, we have
1 =
n

k=0
a
k
b
nk
=
n

k=0
(1)
k
_
2010
k
__
2010 + n k
2010
_
as claimed.
9
(4) (a) A sequence {a
n
}

n=0
has exponential generating function given by the
formal power series

n=0
a
n
x
n
/n!.
(b) Write {a
n
}
n0
egf
f(x) =

n0
a
n
x
n
/n!, then
df(x)
dx
=

n1
a
n
x
n1
(n 1)!
=

n0
a
n+1
x
n
n!
egf
{a
n+1
}
n0
and induction on k gives the result
d
k
f(x)
dx
k
egf
{a
n+k
}
n0
as required.
(c) Suppose {a
n
}
n0
egf
f(x) and {b
n
}
n0
egf
g(x), then
f(x)g(x) =
_

n0
a
n
x
n
n!
__

n0
b
n
x
n
n!
_
=

n0
_
n

k=0
a
n
k!
b
nk
(n k)!
_
x
n
=

n0
_
n

k=0
_
n
k
_
a
n
b
nk
_
x
n
n!
egf

_
n

k=0
_
n
k
_
a
n
b
nk
_
n0
as claimed.
(d) Let {a
n
}
n0
egf

n0
a
n
x
n
/n! = A(x), then
{na
n
}
n0
egf

n0
na
n
x
n
n!
=

n0
a
n
x
n
(n 1)!
= xA

(x)
As {1}
n0
egf
e
x
, it follows that
{n}
n0
egf
xe
x
and {n
2
}
n0
egf
x(x + 1)e
x
using (b) and the recurrence relation gives
A

(x) = xA

(x) x(x + 1)e


x
+ 2e
x
10
hence
A

(X) = (2 + x)e
x
and A(x) = (x + 1)e
x
+ c
1
for some constant c
1
, as 1 = a
0
= A(0) = 1 + c
1
we get c
1
= 0, thus
A(x) = xe
x
+ e
x
egf
{n + 1}
n0
therefore
a
n
= n + 1
is the solution.
(e) Suppose {b
n
}
n0
egf
B(x).
Now by the recurrence relation, using part (b) and the product for-
mula from (c) with {a
n
= 1}
n0
egf
e
x
, we have
B

(x) = e
x
B(x)
hence
_
B

(x)
B(x)
dx =
_
e
x
dx
and so
ln |B(x)| = e
x
+ c
1
and B(x) = c
2
e
e
x
for some constant c
2
. As 1 = b
0
= B(0) = c
2
e, we get c
2
= e
1
giving
B(x) = e
e
x
1
as the solution.

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