Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Wave Equation in Fluids

1. The wave equation in a source-free medium

Acoustic disturbances in fluids, i.e., gases and liquids, which cannot

support shear stresses, propagate as longitudinal waves.

Plane wave propagation means that the acoustic variables, such as sound
pressure p, have a constant instantaneous magnitude throughout any given plane perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation

Rarefied Pressure p / p0 p0

Wavelength

Direction of propagation Compressed

Direction of propagation

Figure 1 Symbolic depiction of plane longitudinal wave propagation for a sinusoidal disturbance. The fluid particles are sketched in the compressed and in the rarefied regions.

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Simplifying assumptions are
(i) The medium is homogenous and isotropic, i.e., it has the same properties at all points and in all directions. (ii) The medium is linearly elastic, i.e., Hookes law applies. (iii) Viscous losses are negligible. (vi) Heat transfer in the medium can be ignored, i.e., changes of state can be assumed to be adiabatic. (v) Gravitational effects can be ignored, i.e., pressure and density are assumed to be constant in the undisturbed medium. (vi) The acoustic disturbances are small, which permits linearization of the relations used.

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The following quantities are considered:

Pressure:
where

p0 the pressure in the undisturbed medium, and v p (r , t ) the pressure disturbance in the medium, the sound pressure.

r v p t (r , t ) is the total pressure as a function of position ( r

v v p t (r , t ) = p 0 + p (r , t )

(1)
) and time (t),

r r r r r Particle Velocity u (r , t ) = u x e x + u y e y + u z e z

(2)

r r where u (r , t ) is the particle velocity vector ux, uy, ur are the corresponding velocity components, r r z e x , e y , e z is the unit vector r r t (r , t ) = 0 + (r , t ) Density:
r where t (r , t )is the total density,

(3)

0 is the density in the undisturbed medium, r (r , t ) is the density disturbance in the medium.

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Absolute Temperature:
A fundamental assumption is that we consider small disturbances, i.e., small variations in pressure. As a rule of thumb, for air at normal temperature and pressure, the sound pressure level should not exceed 140 dB

Equations of continuity
one-dimensional case
y

ux t
z y x x

u ux +( t x) t x
x

Figure 2 Mass flow in the x-direction through a volume element fixed in space.

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According to figure 2, the mass in the volume element is t xyz , the mass flow into the element ( t u x yz ) x is , and the mass flow out is ( t u x yz ) x + xThe . net flow in the element is therefore ( t u x yz ) x ( t u x yz ) x + x , and must ( t xyz ) , so that a mass balance is received equal the mass change

( t xyz ) = ( t u x yz ) x ( t u x yz ) x + x t

(4)

The second term on the right-hand side can be expanded into a series, for small variations about the undisturbed equilibrium state, and if higher-order terms can be neglected, then ( t xyz ) = ( t u x yz ) x ( t u x yz ) x + ( t u x yz ) x x (5) t x This can be simplified to

t + ( t u x ) = 0 t x

(6)

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Generalized to the three dimensional case,
t + ( t u x ) + t u y + ( t u z ) = 0 t x y z

(7)

Defining the del operator, as

r r r = e x + ey + ez y z x
permits a simplified expression of the continuity equation, as

(8)

t r + ( t u ) = 0 t

(9)

Putting the total density (3) into the equation and taking advantage of the fact that the undisturbed density 0 is independent of time and position, and ignoring second order terms, that consist of the product of two acoustic disturbances, gives the linearized wave equation

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r + 0 u = 0 t
In one dimension

(10)

ux + 0 =0 t x

(11)

Equation of motion
Consider a specific fluid particle, with a fixed mass Dm and a fixed volume V = xyz, as in figure 6-3, that moves with the medium.
y

( p+p ) y z 0 z y x x

- [( p+p ) + 0

( p+p ) x y 0 z ] x

Figure 3 Force in the x-direction on a particular fluid particle moving with the medium.

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The force in the x-direction is

Fx = ( p0 + p )yz ( p0 + p + ( p0 + p ) x)yz = ( p0 + p ) xyz x x (12)

where p0 is constant, so that

Fx =

p xyz x

(13)

In three dimensions, the force vector becomes

r r p r p r p F = e x + ey + ez xyz y z x
Putting in the del operator, as

(14)

r r r + ey + ez = e x x y z

(15)

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and using the relation xyz = V, then equation (14) reduces to

r F = p V

(16)
r r

For a given fluid particle, the velocity u ( r , t ) is a function of position and time. At time t and position (x, y, z), the velocity is (x, y, z, t). At a later instant t+t, r the position is (x+ x, y+ y, z+ z) and the velocity is u ( x + x, y + y, z + z, t + .t The differential change in position (x, y, z) can be written x =ux t, y = uy t and z = uz t, so that the acceleration can be written

r a = lim

r r u ( x + u x t , y + u y t , z + u z t , t + t ) u ( x, y, z , t ) t

t 0

(17)

The first term is reformulated with the help of a Taylor series, so that equation (17) can be rewritten r r r r r r u u u u u ( x, y , z , t ) + u x t + u y t + u z t + t + K u ( x, y, z , t ) r x y z t a = lim (18) t t 0

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The acceleration of the fluid particle becomes

r r r r r u u u u + uy + uz + a = ux x y z t

(19)

With simplifying notation this is

r r r u r a= + (u )u t
In one dimension,

(20)

ux ux + ux ax = x t

(21)

For acoustic fields with small disturbances, the second term in equation(20) can be neglected, so that

r r u a= t

(22) 10/48

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In one dimension,

ux ax = t
Making use of equations (16) and (22), as well as m = (0 + ) V , the equation of motion can be formulated as

(23)

If second order terms can be ignored, then the linear, inviscid equation of motion is

r u p V = ( 0 + ) V t

(24)

In one dimension,

r u 0 + p = 0 t

(25)

ux p + =0 t x

(26)

The equation of motion, gives a relation between pressure and particle velocity in a sound field.

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The thermodynamic equation of state
For an ideal gas, the ideal gas law applies,

( p 0 + p ) = ( 0 + ) RT M
where (p0 + p) [Pa] is the total pressure, (0 + ) [kg/m3] is the total density, R = 8.315 [J/(mol K)] is the ideal gas constant, M [kg] is the mass of a mole of gas, and T [K] is the absolute temperature.

(27)

Two idealizations can be considered: an isothermal process, implying such good heat conduction in the medium that the temperature is constant throughout; or, an adiabatic process, in which no heat conduction occurs.

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For small disturbances below a certain frequency limit, it can be shown that the process can, to a good approximation, be regarded as adiabatic. For an adiabatic change of state,

( p0 + p ) ( 0 + ) =
p
0

(28)

where = cp /cv is the ratio of the specific heat of the gas at constant pressure, to that at constant volume. For the sake of simplicity, pt = (p0 + p) denotes total pressure, and t = (0 + ) denotes total density, in the series expansion. The total pressure can be expanded as
2 p t 2 1 pt pt = p0 + p = p 0 + + + ... t = 2 t2 t t = 0 0

(29)

where the partial derivatives are constants that remain to be determined for adiabatic disturbances about 0, i.e., the density in the undisturbed medium.

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For small disturbances, second and higher order terms can be neglected, and a linear relation is obtained as

p=

p t t = t 0

(30)

or

p = 0

(31)

where

= 0

p t t = t 0

(32)

is called the adiabatic bulk modulus.

The homogenous linearized wave equation

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One dimension Three dimensions

Time derivative of continuity eq. (11), Time derivative of continuity equation (10),

Using
,

2 t
2

+ 0

ux =0 x t
2

(33)

r u 0 + (p ) = 0 t

2
Spatial derivative of eq. of motion (26)

r u + 0 = 0 2 t t
r u 0 + (p ) = 0 t

(34)

Divergence of eq. of motion (25),

ux p =0 + x t x 2
2 2

(36)

(35)

In abbreviated notation,

r u 0 + 2 p = 0 t
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(37)

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One dimension Subtraction of (33) from (35) gives 2 2 Three dimensions

p x
2

t
2

=0

(38)

Subtraction of (34) from (37) gives 2 2 p =0 (39) 2

Equation of state (31) eliminates Equation of state (31) eliminates

2p

0 2 p =0 2 t2 x

(40)

0 2 p 2 p =0 2 t

(41)

The wave equation in one dimension

The wave equation in three dimensions

2p x
2

1 2p c
2

=0

(42)

2 p

1 2p c
2

=0

(43)

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The constant c is defined as

c = / 0

(44)

and is the propagation speed of a disturbance in the medium, the speed of sound. According to equation (32)

c = / 0 =

p t t

(45)
t = 0

For an ideal gas, equation (28) implies

pt t = ln pt ln p 0 = (ln t ln 0 ) p0 0

(46)

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so that

pt p t = t t
t = 0

(47)

Put into the expression for the speed of sound (45), this yields

c = pt t
i.e.,

(48) (49)

c = p0 0
c = RT M

The temperature dependence of the speed of sound is obtained by putting the ideal gas law (27) into (48)

(50)

If the speed of sound at 0 C (273 K) is denoted c0, then for other temperatures

c = c 0 T 273
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(51)

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The speed of sound increases with temperature, a relationship with great significance for sound propagation outside, where the temperature often varies with distance to the ground. isothermal bulk modulus T . the relation between these is b = which the sound speed in liquids is found from

T , after

c = T 0
Solutions to the wave equation
General solution for free plane one-dimensional wave propagation

(52)

For plane wave propagation in the x-direction, the wave equation (42) applies. Assume a general solution form of

p ( x, t ) = f (t x c ) + g (t + x c )
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(53)

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where f and g are arbitrary functions and (t x / c) and (t + x / c) are their respective arguments. That assumed solution is known as dAlemberts solution. Derivation of equation (53) with respect to x gives

p 1 1 = f (t x c ) + g (t + x c ) c c x
2 p x2 = 1 c2 f (t x c ) + 1 c2 g (t + x c )

(54) (55)

and similarly with respect to t gives

p = f (t x c ) + g (t + x c ) t
2p t
2

(56) (57)

= f (t x c ) + g (t + x c )

Putting (55) and (57) into (42) shows that the solution fulfills the wave equation.

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To interpret (53), consider a special point (x1,t1) in the wave, in figure 4. It represents a certain sound pressure p1(x1,t1). To have the same sound pressure at another point (x1 + x), at a later instant in time (t1 + t), then the arguments have to be the same, i.e.,

(t1 x1 c ) = (t1 + t ( x1 + x) c )
which gives the condition

(58)

x = ct
Thus, the solution f (t x / c) implies wave propagation in the positive direction along the x-axis, with speed c.

(59)

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Figure 4 Instantaneous picture of the wave propagation in the positive x-direction at time instants t1 and (t1 + t). The propagation speed of the disturbance is c.

Similarly, g(t + x / c) implies propagation in the negative x- direction, so that

x = ct

(60)

The propagation speed c of a disturbance is called the speed of sound (or sound speed), wave speed or phase velocity.

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Harmonic solution for free, plane, one-dimensional wave propagation From Fourier analysis, it is known that every periodic process can be built up of the summation of harmonic, sinusoidal processes with different frequencies, the set of which is called a Fourier series. The harmonic solution we seek for the angular frequency = 2f must, for a certain x-value, say x1 + x, give the same sound pressure at time t as it does one period later at time t + T, where T is called the period. For a harmonic function, that implies that the argument, i.e., the angle, increases by 2. The solution must also, for a certain time value, say t1 = t, give the same sound pressure at points separated along the x-axis a distance equal to the wavelength . Even in that case, the argument must increase by 2, see figures 5a and 5b. Thus, we attempt a solution of the form

p ( x, t ) = p + cos (t x c)

(61)

where p+ is the amplitude, i.e., the highest value of the sound pressure. The argument (t - x/c) = t kx is called the phase and

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k = /c
is called the wave number. The first condition above gives

(62) (63)

p + cos( t kx1 ) = p + cos( (t + T ) kx1 )

i.e.,

T = 2p , = 2 /T
The second condition gives

(64)

p +cos ( t1 kx) = p +cos ( t1 k ( x + ))

(65)

i.e.,

k = 2 , k = 2
From (62), (64) and (66), one obtains the relation

(66) (67)

c = f
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which applies to all types of wave propagation, and in which the frequency is

f=1/T
p(x1,t)

(68)

$ p+

Period T

Figure 5a The variation of sound pressure with time at a fixed position x1.

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p(x,t1)

$ p+

Wavelength
Figure 5b The variation of sound pressure with position at a fixed time t1.

complex notation

p( x, t ) = p + e i ( t kx) + p e i ( t+ kx)

(69)

in which bold print means that the variable concerned is complex. The first term on the right-hand side refers to propagation in the positive xdirection, and the second term to propagation in the negative x-direction. For the sake of physical interpretation, the real part of (69) is needed, i.e.,

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p ( x, t ) = Re( p+ e
i ( t kx )

+ p e

i ( t + kx )

) = p+ cos( t kx) + pcos( t + kx )

(70) (71)

The equation of motion (26)

ux p + =0 t x

relates the particle velocity to the sound pressure; rearranged, it gives

ux =

p dt x

(72)

Next, putting in (69) gives the particle velocity

1 ik ik + e i ( t kx) + u x ( x, t ) = p p e i ( t + kx ) 0 i i
Since k/ = 1/c, the particle can be written

(73)

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u x ( x, t ) = p + i ( t kx) p i ( t+ kx) e e 0c 0c
(74)

The two terms refer to wave propagation in the positive and negative xdirections, respectively. The ratio of pressure to particle velocity is called the specific impedance Z,

Z = p ux
and, for the free plane wave case, is therefore

(75)

+ Z 0 = 0c
and

(76)

Z 0 = 0c

(77)

for propagation in the positive and negative directions, respectively. The quantity 0c is called the wave impedance.

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Sound intensity for free, plane, one-dimensional wave propagation The sound intensity is defined as the sound energy per unit time that passes through a unit area perpendicular to the propagation direction. the instantaneous power can be written

r r W(t ) = F (t ) u (t )
A general expression for sound intensity is therefore that

(78)

r r r r r I (r , t ) = p(r , t ) u (r , t )
For propagation in the x-direction,

(79)

I x ( x, t ) = p( x, t )u x ( x, t )
The time-averaged sound intensity is

(80)

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1 I x ( x) = T
T

p( x, t )u x ( x, t )dt

(81)

0 Making use of the expression for pressure, i.e., the real part of (69), and the particle velocity, i.e., the real part of (74), in (81), gives the intensity in the form

2 2 I x = ( p+ p ) 2 0c

(82)

The first term refers to a wave moving in the positive x-direction, and the second term to a wave moving in the negative x-direction. For harmonic waves, the relation between the rms amplitude and the peak value is ~ = p 2 , so that (82) can be written p

~ 2 ~ 2 p+ p Ix = 0c 0c

(83)

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Energy and energy density in free, plane, one-dimensional wave propagation
The energy E associated with a sound wave consists of two parts, the kinetic and the potential energy. The kinetic energy Ek can be related to the velocity of a fluid particle. The potenti-al energy Ep is due to the compression, i.e., the elasticity. Consider a particular mass of gas that has density 0 and volume V0 in the undisturbed medium, so that its mass can be written

0V0 = t V
E k ( x, t ) =

(85) (86)

For wave propagation in the x-direction, its kinetic energy is, from elementary mechanics, 2

0V0 u x ( x, t )
2

The potential energy of the fluid mass comes from the work that expended to compress it. Consider, now, the fluid volume shown in figure 7. The force applied to the piston is equal to the product of the pistons area S and the pressure p against its inside surface, i.e., Fx = p(x,t)S. When the piston moves a distance dx, the differential amount of work dEp = Fx dx = p(x,t) S dx is performed.

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Figure 7

Work performed to compress a fluid volume.

Since Sdx = dV , dEp can, with complete generality, be written

dE p = p( x, t )dV

(87)

where the minus sign implies that a positive sound pressure p(x,t), which gives a negative volume change (i.e., a volume reduction or compression), corresponds to a positive potential energy. We choose to express dV as a function of the sound pressure. Differentiating (85),

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V = 1

0V0 dV =

0V0 t
2

d t

d t

(88)

Since equation (46) states that then

pt t = p0 0

d t

1 dp t d t = t dp t pt pt

(89)

equations (88) and (89) give

dV =

V dp t pt

(90)

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For small pressure and volume disturbances, the undisturbed pressure and the undisturbed volume can be used

dV =

V0 dp p0
V0 p dp p0

(91)

The work (87) can now be written as

dE p =

(92)

The potential energy is, finally, obtained by integrating from 0 to the sound pressure p; thus,

Ep =

According to (49), c = p 0 0 ; thus, for plane wave propagation in the xdirection, a general expression for the energy is
2

V0 p2 2 p 0

(93)

E p ( x, t ) =

V0 20c 2

p 2 ( x, t )

(94)

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The concept of energy density [J/m3] refers to the energy per unit volume. Of course this quantity, just as the total energy does, consists of two parts: kinetic and potential energy densities, i.e.,

r r r (r , t ) = k (r , t ) + p (r , t )
2

(95)

Using expressions for the kinetic energy (86) and the potential energy (94), the energy density for propagation in the x-direction is then

( x, t ) =

0 u x ( x, t )
2

p 2 ( x, t ) 2 0c 2

(96)

According to (76) and (77), u x ( x, t ) = p ( x, t ) ( 0 c ) applies to plane waves. Using this in (96) yields the instantaneous value of the energy density

0c 2 The time average is obtained by integrating with respect to time

2 2

( x, t ) =

p 2 ( x, t ) 20c

p 2 ( x, t ) 20c

p 2 ( x, t )

(97)

T ~ 2 ( x) 1 p ( x) = ( x, t ) dt = T 0c 2 0

(98) 35/48

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For a plane wave however, since it doesnt decay with distance, the rms pressure is independent of position x; that naturally applies to the time-averaged energy density as well, i.e.,

~2 p

0c

(99)

A comparison to (83) gives the relation between the sound intensity and the energy density of a plane wave, as

I x = c
General solution for free spherical wave propagation

(100)

The spherical wave is a basic cornerstone in the study of acoustic fields. More complex sound fields can be built up of combinations of spherical waves

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...... . .... . ........................... ... . . . . . . . .... .. ...... ....... .... .............. .. .. . ... .. .. .. .... . . . . . . ... ....... ...... . . . ....... ........ ... . .... ... ....... . .... ... ......... . . . .. .. . . . . . ... .. . . .. . . . . .......... ........... .................................. .............................. ... .. . . . .. .. .. . ........... . . . .. . ... . .. . . . ..... .. .. ... .. ...... ......... .. .. .... .. . . . . ............. .. .. . . .............. ... . .................. .................................................... ............ . ... . .. . . .. . ... .. . .. . . . ............... . ... .............................................. ........................ ..... .............. ... . . ... .... . ..... .. .................. .. . ... ..... ... . . . . . .. . .. . ... . ..... .... ... ............. .................................. . ......... . .. .... ..... .. . . . .. . . .......... .............. ................. . . . .................. ... .... .. . ... . ....... . . .. . . ..... .... . . ... .. . . .. .... .. .. . . ............... ............... ... ........... ... .. ................ .. .... ...... . ........... . ... . . . ... .. . .. ........ ........... . . ............ ..... ... ... ................. ... ................ . .... . .. . ... . ... . . .. .. . . . . ......... .. ... ...... . .. . ......... ... . . . .... ... ...... .. . . . . .. . . .. ....... . ...... . ... ............ ................................................. ............ .... . ...... . .. . . . . . ...... . .. . ..... .. . . . ................ .. ... ...... . .. .. ... . . . . .. ... ............ ... ................. ... .. ... . ....... .... . ... ............... ... .. ..... ..... ... . . . . . . .. .... . ... ......... . ... ... .............. .... . ..... ... ............. . ... .. ........ .. . . .. . . . . .. . . ............. .. .... . . ................................................ ....... . ... ..... . . .... . .. .... .............. . .. . . .. .. . ............ .. ..... ... . .. . ... . ... . . ............... .... ... ..... . . . ... .. . .. . . . . ... . . . . ...... . .. .. . . . . .. .. .......... . ...... .... ......................... . ... .... .... . . . . . .. .. ..... . . ...... ....... ....... .. . ... . .. ......

Figure 8 Symbolic picture of spherical wave propagation from a harmonic disturbance.

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For spherical wave propagation, it is of course more convenient to make use of the latter; see figure 9.

z (r, , )

r r cos y r sin cos

r sin sin

Figure 9 Relation between spherical and Cartesian coordinate systems.

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In spherical coordinates, the wave equation (43) takes the form
1 2 2 1 1 1 2 p + + r sin p= 2 r 2 sin 2 2 r r r r 2 sin c 2 t 2

(101)

For spherical symmetry, the sound pressure has no angular dependence, and equation (101) reduces to

1 2 1 2p r p = 2 2 r r c t2 r
or

(102)

2p

2 p 1 2p + = 2 r r c2 t 2 r

(103)

Unlike plane wave propagation, the sound pressure amplitude decays with increasing radius, since the sound power in the wave is divided over an ever-expanding spherical surface of area 4 r2. In a plane wave, the sound intensity is, according to (82),

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i.e., proportional to the squared sound pressure amplitude. Assuming that applies to spherical waves as well, their amplitude would therefore have to decay at a rate of 1/r according to the energy principle; by analogy to the plane wave case, an assumed solution might therefore take the form

p(r , t ) =

1 1 f (t r c ) + g (t + r c ) r r

(105)

Here, the first term represents an outgoing diverging wave and the second term an incident converging wave. The incoming wave seldom exists in connection with acoustic radiation from machines. The solution is verified by inserting it into the wave equation (103). On a term-by-term basis, we have
2p r
2

1 rc
2

f (t r c ) +

2
2

f (t r c ) +

2
3

f (t r c ) +

r c r 1 2 2 + g (t + r c ) g (t + r c ) + g (t + r c ) rc 2 r 2c r3

(106)

2 p 2 2 2 2 = f (t r c ) f (t r c ) + g (t + r c ) g (t + r c ) 2 3 2 3 r r r c r r c r

(107)

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1 2p c
2

1 rc
2

f (t r c ) +

1 rc
2

g (t + r c )

(108)

Putting all of these into (103) shows that the assumption does indeed fulfill the wave equation. The equation of motion (25) relates the particle velocity to the sound pressure. In spherical coordinates, it takes the form

r r With spherical symmetry and u = u r (r , t )e r , the equations of motion can be reduced to

r 1 u r r 1 r 0 + e r + e + e p = 0 sin t r r

(109)

ur p + 0 =0 t r

(110)

and the particle velocity expressed as

ur =

p dt r

(111)

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Harmonic solution for free, spherical wave propagation
A complex harmonic solution is obtained, as

p(r , t ) =

A+ i ( t kr ) A i ( t + kr ) + e e r r

(112)

The first term on the right-hand side refers to an outgoing, diverging, wave, and the second to an incident, converging, wave. The sound pressure amplitude in the outgoing wave is A+/ r, where A+ is a constant. The amplitude is therefore a function of r. From (111), the particle velocity becomes

u r (r , t ) =

A p(r,t ) dt = + 0 r

1 ik i ( t kr ) dt 2 + r e r

(113)

Integrating, and applying the relation (62), k = /c, gives the particle velocity

A+ 1 i ( t kr ) u r (r , t ) = 1 + e 0 cr ik r
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By analogy to the definition (75) of the specific impedance of a free plane wave, we define here the complex quantity Z as the ratio of the complex sound pressure to the complex radial particle velocity at a point in a sound field
Z= p ur

(115)

For an outgoing spherical wave, the specific impedance, using equations (112) and (114), becomes
Z= p = 0c ur 1 1 1+ ikr = 0c ikr 1 + ikr

(116)

Multiplying the numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of the latter, gives

k 2r 2 kr Z = 0c = 0 c +i 1 + k 2r 2 1 + k 2r 2 1 + k 2r 2 k 2 r 2 + ikr

(117)

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and the specific impedance Z can be divided into a resistive part R and a reactive part X, i.e.,

Z = R + iX
Some observations that follow from the preceding are:

(118)

(i) Nearfield
In the acoustic near field (kr = 2r/ 1), i.e., when the radius is small in comparison to the wavelength, both the resistance and the reactance approach zero, but the resistance does so more quickly. The reactance therefore dominates, and the impedance approaches

Z(r ) i 0 c kr

(119)

That means that for a given sound pressure, the particle velocity becomes large and its phase shift approaches 90 with respect to the sound pressure. For kr = 1, both the resistance and the reactance are equally large, 0c / 2,

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(ii) Far field
In the acoustic far-field (kr = 2r / 1), i.e., where the radius is large with respect to the wavelength, the resistance approaches 0c and the reactance approaches zero as r goes to infinity. The resistance dominates and the impedance approaches the same expression as for plane waves

Z(r ) 0 c

(120)

That means that the phase difference between the sound pressure and the particle velocity approaches zero, as is the case for plane waves. The curvature of the spherical waves in the farfield, with increasing distance to the source, becomes all the less significant and the situation asymptotically approaches that of plane waves.

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1,0
R / 0c

0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0 0 5 10 kr 15 20

X / 0c

Figure 10 Normalized resistance R /0c , and normalized reactance X /0c , for outgoing spherical wave propagation.

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Sound intensity for spherical wave propagation
The time-averaged sound intensity of outgoing spherical waves can be determined by the same methods as for plane waves. Write the intensity as

I r (r ) =

Re(p (u r )*) Re(p * u r ) = 2 2

2 A+ 1 1 + = ikr 2 0 cr 2

(121)

Putting equations (112) and (114) into equation (121) gives

2 1 A+ I r (r ) = Re 2 0 cr 2

(122)

The time-averaged energy flow through a closed, spherical control surface of radius r is 2 A+ 2 W = I r (r ) 4 r = 2 (123) 0c For a loss-free medium, the sound power is therefore independent of the radius, which is in agreement with the energy principle.

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Thank you

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