CHAPTER-1 PROJECT BACKGROUND

1.1 PROBLEM
Generally remote operated robots are made which have a low range of signals for operating them and in hospitals patients forget to take medications and a problem occurs to their health. If any obstacles are there in between the path of the robot then a problem occurred in motion of the robot. So we want to make such a robot that can be used for helping the patients by recalling them to take medicines and can carry their medicines. It should detect obstacles in path and can be operated by a remote location.

1.2 ORIGIN OF THE PROPOSAL

The expression the literature typically refers to published writings in books, journals, and conference proceedings that relate to the fields of investigations within which a students project lies. Such literature also includes unpublished thesis and dissertations. The inspiration for my project came to us from problems occurring to operate robots and patients.

1.3 AVAILABLE SOLUTIONS

At present in hospitals caring of patients is done by the nurses who provided them medicines time to time but a problem occurs if they forget it. Also today in hazardous places remote controlled robots are used which are based on the either IR or RF technology.

1.4 PROPOSED SOLUTION

To overcome above problems we want to make a multipurpose robot which is operated by the mobile phone by using DTMF technique .It also have a real time clock to provide the accurate time for the patients to take medicines at right time ,it recall them by a buzzer. A obstacle sensor and a arm is also provided to avoid the obstacles and carry the medicines of the patients respectively.
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1.5 ITS BENEFITS OVER EXISTING ONES

1. It helps physically disabled persons by carrying some objects from place to place using the arm structure in the robot. 2. It guides the blind persons to reach a particular destination using the voice assistance feature. 3. It is used to guide visitors in an organization by providing information about the facilities available. 4. Because of the presence of the Real-time Clock (DS1307), time-based control of the robot is possible. For example, it is used in hospitals to inform patients to take the tablets at the right time. 5. It is used in hazardous places as it is controlled using a mobile communication device (DTMF technique). 6. The photo electric sensor in the robot will sense the obstacles and it will make decisions according to the obstacles it encounters.

CHAPTER-2 PROPOSED SOLUTION

2.1 PHILOSOPHY OF IDEA

Remote operated robots are made which have a low range of signals for operating them and in hospitals patients forget to take medications and a problem occurs to their health. If any obstacles are there in between the path of the robot then a problem occurred in motion of the robot. So we want to make such a robot that can be used for helping the patients by recalling them to take medicines and can carry their medicines. It should detect obstacles in path and can be operated by a remote location. The main components required to make the robot are LDR (sensor), AT89C52, RTC, voice recorder, DTMF decoder and stepper motors. A microcontroller such as 8052 is the primary intelligence that interprets, initiates and takes the decisive action based on the sensor inputs. The sensors basically used here are for the robots main navigation. A light dependent resistor is connected to the microcontroller through an opto-coupler MCT2E. This senses the obstacles in front of the robot. When the sensor senses the object it gives logic one to the controller.

Figure 2.1: Block diagram of the Multipurpose Robot

A real-time clock counts seconds, minutes, hours, date of the month, month, day of the week, and year with leap year compensation valid up to 2100. I can set the time and I can program the robot in such a way that the robot can perform the work based on the real-time clock. The voice recorder APR9600 is used to record voice and it can be played back whenever voice assistance is needed. The robot is controlled from a remote location using a dual tone multi-frequency decoding technique. If any obstacle comes in the pathway of the robot it is detected using the ldr sensor and appropriate decision is made. The robots motion is controlled by two stepper motors incorporated at the base. The driver circuits for these motors are controlled with an AT89C52. All the aforementioned applications are implemented in the robot using the microcontroller AT89C51. The robots motion is controlled by two stepper motors incorporated at the base. The driver circuits for these motors are controlled with an AT89C51. In the first two applications, the distance and direction of the destination is accepted as input through the user friendly keyboard, and multiplexed 7-segment display system. The arm structure is controlled by a relay circuit.
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In the third application, the distance and direction are pre-programmed in the microcontroller AT89C51. We record all the information about the organization in the voice recorder APR9600 and are played back whenever voice assistance is needed. In the fourth application, a real-time clock count seconds, minutes, hours, date of the month, month, day of the week, and year with leap year compensation valid up to 2100. We can set the time and we can program the robot in such a way that the robot can perform the work based on the real-time clock. In the fifth application, the robot is controlled from a remote location using a dual tone multifrequency decoding technique. If any obstacle comes in the pathway of the robot it is detected using the photoelectric sensors and appropriate decision is made. Because it is a general purpose robot with facilities like: Pick and Place arm, DTMF decoding techniques, Real time clock, Obstacles sensor.

CHAPTER-3 CIRCUIT DETAILS

3.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF PROJECT

Figure 3.1 : Circuit Diagram Of Project

Figure 3.2: Circuit Diagram Of DTMF System

3.2 EXPLANATION OF CIRCUIT DIAGRAM WITH PROCESS-FLOW

The clock is generated for the microcontroller using a crystal of frequency 11.0592MHz connected to pins XTAL1 and XTAL2. A 6V battery is connected to a 7805 voltage regulator. The regulated output is given as supply to the microcontroller and all the other IC'S used. PORT0 of microcontroller AT89C51 is connected to input of buffer 74HC244. The buffer is used to isolate the microcontroller and the stepper motor. The output of buffer is given to IRF 540N, a FET to provide the necessary current to drive the stepper motor. The power supply for the stepper motor is from a 12V battery. PORT1 of the AT89C51 is connected to a multiplexed seven segment display system. The seven segment displays used here are common anode displays. Each pin of upper nibble in PORT1 is connected to a transistor BC547 which selects one of the 7-segment displays. The lower nibble is connected to IC 4511 a common anode BCD to seven segment decoder which converts the BCD data to seven segment data and then give it to the seven segment displays. These displays are used for the user to set the time, distance to be travelled, display time, display distance to be travelled, etc. In PORT2 the lower nibble is connected to a 4 x16 decoder. The decoder outputs select which voice is to be played in APR9600's. The APR9600 device offers voice recording, non-volatile storage and playback capability. APR 9600 can store 8 voices because we use voice recorder IC's

in random access mode. The duration of each voice is 7.5 seconds. We use these two voice recorder IC's in visitor guiding mode and patient guiding mode to play the voices stored. In the upper nibble pin P2.4 is connected to a photoelectric sensor through an opto-coupler IC MCT2E which senses the obstacles in front of the robot. When the sensor senses the object it gives logic one to the controller. The pin P2.5 is connected to a buzzer. The pins P2.6 and P2.7 are connected to the base of transistor BC547. The collector of transistor BC547 is connected to the DC motor of the arm via relay which is used as a switching element for arm. When the microcontroller outs a 0V in the port pin P2.6 and +5V in the port pin P2.7 the arm comes out. When the microcontroller outs a +5V in the port pin P2.6 and 0V in the port pin P2.7 the arm moves inside. In PORT3 the pins P3.3-P3.6 are connected to push to on switches which are used for giving input such as directions, distance and time to the robot. The port pins P3.2 and P3.7 are connected to the SDA and SCL pins of the real time clock IC DS1307 respectively. The microcontroller communicates with DS1307 through I2C logic. We read the time from the real time clock and we can set the time in the patient guiding mode.

CHAPTER-4 COMPONENTS DETAILS

4.1 MICRO CONTROLLER (ATMEL AT89C51)
4.1.1 FEATURES
1. 4k bytes of in-system reprogrammable flash memory endurance: 1,000 2. Write/erase cycles 3. Fully static operation: 0 hz to 24 Mhz 4. Three-level program memory lock 5. 128 x 8-bit internal ram 6. 32 programmable i/o lines 7. Two 16-bit timer/counters 8. Six interrupt sources 9. A full duplex serial port 10. On-chip oscillator and clock circuitry 11. Programmable serial channel 12. Low-power idle and power-down modes

4.1.2 DESCRIPTION
The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4K bytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density non-volatile memory technology and is compatible with the industrystandard MCS-51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional non-volatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.

4.1.3 PIN CONFIGURATION OF AT89C51 IC

Figure 4.1 : Pin Configuration Of At89c51 Ic

In addition, the AT89C51 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.

Figure 4.2: Snapshot Of At89c51

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4.1.4 PIN DESCRIPTION OF AT89C51 IC

(i) VCC Supply voltage (ii) GND Ground (iii) PORT 0 Port 0 is an 8-bit open-drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high impedance inputs. Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode P0 has internal Pull ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming, and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull ups are required during program verification.

(iv) PORT 1 Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull ups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull ups. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.

(v) PORT 2 Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull ups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, it uses strong internal pull ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the highorder address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification.

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(vi) PORT 3 Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull ups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pull ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull ups. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C51 as listed

PORT PIN P3.0 P3.1 P3.2 P3.3 P3.4 P3.5 P3.6 P3.7

ALTERNATE FUNCTIONS RXD (serial input port) TXD (serial output port) INT0 (external interrupt 0) INT1 (external interrupt 1) T0 (timer 0 external input) T1 (timer 1 external input) WR (external data memory write strobe) RD (external data memory read strobe)

Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.

(vii) RST Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device.

(viii) ALE/PROG Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency, and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external Data Memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or

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MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.

(ix) PSEN Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89C51 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.

(x) EA/VPP External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. However, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming, for parts that require 12-volt VPP. (xi) XTAL1 Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. (xii) XTAL2 Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

4.1.5 OSCILLATOR CHARACTERISTICS

XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.

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4.1.6 IDLE MODE

In idle mode, the CPU puts itself to sleep while all the on chip peripherals remain active. The mode is invoked by software. The content of the on-chip RAM and all the special functions registers remain unchanged during this mode. The idle mode can be terminated by any enabled interrupt or by a hardware reset. It should be noted that when idle is terminated by a hard ware reset, the device normally resumes program execution, from where it left off, up to two machine cycles before the internal reset algorithm takes control. On-chip hardware inhibits access to internal RAM in this event, but access to the port pins is not inhibited. To eliminate the possibility of an unexpected write to a port pin when Idle is terminated by reset, the instruction following the one that invokes Idle should not be one that writes to a port pin or to external memory.

4.1.7 POWER-DOWN MODE

In the power-down mode, the oscillator is stopped, and the instruction that invokes power-down is the last instruction executed. The on-chip RAM and Special Function Registers retain their values until the power-down mode is terminated. The only exit from power-down is a hardware reset. Reset redefines the SFRs but does not change the on-chip RAM. The reset should not be activated before VCC is restored to its normal operating level and must be held active long enough to allow the oscillator to restart and stabilize.

4.2 MOTOR DRIVER IC (L293D)

4.2.1 FEATURES
600ma Output Current Capability Per Channel 1.2A Peak Output Current (Non Repetitive) Per Channel Enable Facility Over temperature protection Logical 0 Input Voltage Up To 1.5 V (High Noise Immunity) Internal Clamp Diodes

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4.2.2 PIN CONFIGURATION OF L293D IC

Figure 4.3: Pin Diagram Of L293D IC

4.2.3 DESCRIPTION
The Device is a monolithic integrated high voltage, high current four channel driver designed to accept standard DTL or TTL logic levels and drive inductive loads (such as relays 15olenoids, DC and stepping motors) and switching power transistors. To simplify use as two bridges each pair of channels is equipped with an enable input. A separate supply input is provided for the logic, allowing operation at a lower voltage and internal clamp diodes are included. This device is suitable for use in switching applications at frequencies up to 5 kHz. The L293D is assembled in a 16 lead plastic package which has 4 center pins connected together and used for heat sinking.

4.2.4 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS

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4.2.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Figure 4.4: Block Diagram Of L293DIC

4.3 REAL-TIME CLOCK (DS-1307)

4.3.1GENERAL DESCRIPTION The DS1307 serial real-time clock (RTC) is a low-power, full binary-coded decimal (BCD) clock/calendar plus 56 bytes of NV SRAM. Address and data are transferred serially through an I2C, bidirectional bus. The clock/calendar provides seconds, minutes, hours, day, date, month, and year information. The end of the month date is automatically adjusted for months with fewer than 31 days, including corrections for leap year. The clock operates in either the 24-hour or 12hour format with AM/PM indicator. The DS1307 has a built-in power-sense circuit that detects power failures and automatically switches to the backup supply. Timekeeping operation continues while the part operates from the backup supply.

4.3.2 FEATURES
1. Real-Time Clock (RTC) Counts Seconds, Minutes, Hours, Date of the Month, Month, Day of the week, and Year with Leap-Year Compensation Valid Up to 2100 . 2. 56-Byte, Battery-Backed, General-Purpose RAM with Unlimited Writes . 3. I2C Serial Interface . 4. Programmable Square-Wave Output Signal .
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5. Automatic Power-Fail Detect and Switch Circuitry. 6. Consumes Less than 500nA in Battery-Backup Mode with Oscillator Running . 7. Optional Industrial Temperature Range: -40C to +85C . 8. Available in 8-Pin Plastic DIP or SO

4.3.3 PIN CONFIGURATIONS OF DS1307 IC

Figure 4.5: pin configuration of DS1307 IC

4.3.4 TYPICAL OPERATING CIRCUIT

Figure 4.6: Operating Circuit Of DS1307 IC

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4.3.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DS1307 IC

Figure 4.7: Block Diagram Of Ds1307 Ic

4.3.6 PIN DESCRIPTION

1. X1, X2 Connections for Standard 32.768kHz Quartz Crystal. The internal oscillator circuitry is designed for operation with a crystal having a specified load capacitance (CL) of 12.5pF. X1 is the input to the oscillator and can optionally be connected to an external 32.768kHz oscillator. The output of the internal oscillator, X2, is floated if an external oscillator is connected to X1. 2. VBAT Backup Supply Input for Any Standard 3V Lithium Cell or Other Energy Source. Battery voltage must be held between the minimum and maximum limits for proper operation. Diodes in series between the battery and the VBAT pin may prevent proper operation. If a backup supply is not required, VBAT must be grounded. The nominal power-fail trip point (VPF) voltage at which access to the RTC and user RAM is denied is set by the internal circuitry as 1.25 x VBAT nominal. A lithium battery with 48mAh or greater will back up the DS1307 for more than 10 years in the absence of power at +25C.

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3. GND Ground 4. SDA Serial Data Input / Output. SDA is the data input/output for the I2C serial interface. The SDA pin is open drain and requires an external pull up resistor. The pull up voltage can be up to 5.5V regardless of the voltage on VCC. 5. SCL Serial Clock Input. SCL is the clock input for the I2C interface and is used to synchronize data movement on the serial interface. The pullup voltage can be up to 5.5V regardless of the voltage on VCC. 6. SQW/OUT Square Wave/Output Driver. When enabled, the SQWE bit set to 1, the SQW/OUT pin outputs one of four square-wave frequencies (1Hz, 4kHz, 8kHz, 32kHz). The SQW/OUT pin is open drain and requires an external pullup resistor. SQW/OUT operates with either VCC or VBAT applied. The pullup voltage can be up to 5.5V regardless of the voltage on VCC. If not used, this pin can be left floating. 7. VCC Primary Power Supply. When voltage is applied within normal limits, the device is fully accessible and data can be written and read. When a backup supply is connected to the device and VCC is below VTP, read and writes are inhibited. However, the timekeeping function continues unaffected by the lower input voltage.

4.3.7 DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The DS1307 is a low-power clock/calendar with 56 bytes of battery-backed SRAM. The clock/calendar provides seconds, minutes, hours, day, date, month, and year information. The date at the end of the month is automatically adjusted for months with fewer than 31 days, including corrections for leap year. The DS1307 operates as a slave device on the I2C bus. Access is obtained by implementing a START condition and providing a device identification code followed by a register address. Subsequent registers can be accessed sequentially until a STOP condition is executed. When VCC falls below 1.25 x VBAT, the device terminates an access in progress and resets the device address counter. Inputs to the device will not be recognized at this time to prevent erroneous data from being written to the device from an out-of19

tolerance system. When VCC falls below VBAT, the device switches into a low-current batterybackup mode. Upon power-up, the device switches from battery to VCC when VCC is greater than VBAT +0.2V and recognizes inputs when VCC is greater than 1.25 x VBAT. The block diagram in Figure 1 shows the main elements of the serial RTC.

4.3.8 OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT

The DS1307 uses an external 32.768kHz crystal. The oscillator circuit does not require any external resistors or capacitors to operate. Table 1 specifies several crystal parameters for the external crystal. Figure 1 shows a functional schematic of the oscillator circuit. If using a crystal with the specified characteristics, the startup time is usually less than one second.

4.3.9 CLOCK ACCURACY

The accuracy of the clock is dependent upon the accuracy of the crystal and the accuracy of the match between the capacitive load of the oscillator circuit and the capacitive load for which the crystal was trimmed. Additional error will be added by crystal frequency drift caused by temperature shifts. External circuit noise coupled into the oscillator circuit may result in the clock running fast.

4.3.10 RTC AND RAM ADDRESS MAP

Table 2 shows the address map for the DS1307 RTC and RAM registers. The RTC registers are located in address locations 00h to 07h. The RAM registers are located in address locations 08h to 3Fh. During a multibyte access, when the address pointer reaches 3Fh, the end of RAM space, it wraps around to location 00h, the beginning of the clock space.

4.3.11 CLOCK AND CALENDAR

The time and calendar information is obtained by reading the appropriate register bytes. Table 2 shows the RTC registers. The time and calendar are set or initialized by writing the appropriate register bytes. The contents of the time and calendar registers are in the BCD format. The day-ofweek register increments at midnight. Values that correspond to the day of week are user-defined but must be sequential (i.e., if 1 equals Sunday, then 2 equals Monday, and so on.) Illogical time and date entries result in undefined operation. Bit 7 of Register 0 is the clock halt (CH) bit. When
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this bit is set to 1, the oscillator is disabled. When cleared to 0, the oscillator is enabled. On first application of power to the device the time and date registers are typically reset to 01/01/00 01 00:00:00 (MM/DD/YY DOW HH:MM:SS). The CH bit in the seconds register will be set to a 1. The clock can be halted whenever the timekeeping functions are not required, which minimizes current (IBATDR). The DS1307 can be run in either 12-hour or 24-hour mode. Bit 6 of the hours register is defined as the 12-hour or 24-hour mode-select bit. When high, the 12-hour mode is selected. In the 12hour mode, bit 5 is the AM/PM bit with logic high being PM. In the 24-hour mode, bit 5 is the second 10-hour bit (20 to 23 hours). The hours value must be re-entered whenever the 12/24hour mode bit is changed. When reading or writing the time and date registers, secondary (user) buffers are used to prevent errors when the internal registers update. When reading the time and date registers, the user buffers are synchronized to the internal registers on any I2C START. The time information is read from these secondary registers while the clock continues to run. This eliminates the need to re-read the registers in case the internal registers update during a read. The divider chain is reset whenever the seconds register is written. Write transfers occur on the I2C acknowledge from the DS1307. Once the divider chain is reset, to avoid rollover issues, the remaining time and date registers must be written within one second.

4.3.12 DETAILS OF TIME KEEPER REGISTERS

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The DS1307 can operate in the following two modes: (1.) SLAVE RECEIVER MODE (WRITE MODE) Serial data and clock are received through SDA and SCL. After each byte is received an acknowledge bit is transmitted. START and STOP conditions are recognized as the beginning and end of a serial transfer. Hardware performs address recognition after reception of the slave address and direction bit (see Figure 4). The slave address byte is the first byte received after the master generates the START condition. The slave address byte contains the 7-bit DS1307 address, which is 1101000, followed by the direction bit (R/W), which for a write is 0. After receiving and decoding the slave address byte, the DS1307 outputs an acknowledge on SDA. After the DS1307 acknowledges the slave address + write bit, the master transmits a word address to the DS1307. This sets the register pointer on the DS1307, with the DS1307 acknowledging the transfer. The master can then transmit zero or more bytes of data with the DS1307 acknowledging each byte received. The register pointer automatically increments after each data byte are written. The master will generate a STOP condition to terminate the data write. (2.)SLAVE TRANSMITTER MODE (READ MODE) The first byte is received and handled as in the slave receiver mode. However, in this mode, the direction bit will indicate that the transfer direction is reversed. The DS1307 transmits serial data on SDA while the serial clock is input on SCL. START and STOP conditions are recognized as the beginning and end of a serial transfer (see Figure 5). The slave address byte is the first byte received after the START condition is generated by the master. The slave address byte contains the 7-bit DS1307 address, which is 1101000, followed by the direction bit (R/W), which is 1 for a read. After receiving and decoding the slave address the DS1307 outputs an acknowledge on SDA. The DS1307 then begins to transmit data starting with the register address pointed to by the register pointer. If the register pointer is not written to before the initiation of a read mode the first address that is read is the last one stored in the register pointer. The register pointer automatically increments after each byte are read. The DS1307 must receive a Not Acknowledge to end a read.

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4.4 DC MOTOR
A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity. DC motors were used to run machinery, often eliminating the need for a local steam engine or internal combustion engine. DC motors can operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive power for the first electric vehicles. Today DC motors are still found in applications as small as toys and disk drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper machines. Modern DC motors are nearly always operated in conjunction with power electronic devices. The DC motor is a machine that transforms electric energy into mechanical energy in form of rotation. Its movement is produced by the physical behaviour of electromagnetism. DC motors have inductors inside, which produce the magnetic field used to generate movement.

Electromagnet

Figure 4.8: Electromagnet

An electromagnet, which is a piece of iron wrapped with a wire coil that has voltage applied in its terminals. If two fixed magnets are added in both sides of this electromagnet, the repulsive and attractive forces will produce a torque

Torque

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Figure 4.9: Torque of DC Motor

Then, there are two problems to solve: feeding the current to the rotating electromagnet without the wires getting twisted, and changing the direction of the current at the appropriate time. Both of these problems are solved using two devices: a split-ring commentator, and a pair of brushes.

Brushed Motor

Figure 4.10: Brushed Motor

As it can be seen, the commutator has two segments which are connected to each terminal of the electromagnet, besides the two arrows are the brushes which apply electric current to the rotary electromagnet. In real DC motors it can be found three slots instead of two and two brushes. This way, as the electromagnet is moving its polarity is changing and the shaft may keep rotating. Even if it is simple and sounds that it will work great there are some issues which make these motors energy inefficient and mechanically unstable, the principal problem is due to the timing between each polarity inversion. Since polarity in the electromagnet is changed mechanically, at some velocities polarity is changing too soon, which result in reverse impulses and sometimes in changing too late, generating instantaneous stops in rotation. Whatever the case, these issues produce current peaks and mechanical instability.
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Figure 4.11: DC Motor View

DC motors have only two terminals. If you apply a voltage to these terminals the motor will run, if you invert the terminals position the motor will change its direction. If the motor is running and you suddenly disconnect both terminals the motor will keep rotating but slowing down until stopping. Finally if the motor is running and you suddenly short-circuit both terminals the motor will stop. So there is not a third wire to control a DC motor, but knowing the previous behaviours it can be designed a way to control it, and the solution is an H-bridge. Look at the last evolution of the DC Motor above, you can observe that there are four gates and a motor connected between them. This is the simplest H-bridge, where the four gates represent for transistors. By manipulating these gates and connecting the upper and lower terminals to a voltage supply, you can control the motor in all the behaviours as below. H-Bridge States

Figure 4.12: H-Bridge Circuit of DC Motor

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4.5 OPTO-COUPLER (MCT2E) IC

Gallium Arsenide Diode Infrared Source Optically Coupled to a Silicon npn Phototransistor High Direct-Current Transfer Ratio Base Lead Provided for Conventional Transistor Biasing High-Voltage Electrical Isolation . . .1.5-kV, or 3.55-kV Rating Plastic Dual-In-Line Package High-Speed Switching: tr = 5 s, tf = 5 s Typical Designed to be Interchangeable with General Instruments MCT2 and MCT2E

4.6 DTMF DECODER (CM8870) IC

Full DTMF receiver Less than 35mW power consumption Industrial temperature range Uses quartz crystal or ceramic resonators Adjustable acquisition and release times 18-pin DIP, 18-pin DIP EIAJ, 18-pin SOIC, 20-pin PLCC CM8870C Power down mode Inhibit mode Buffered OSC3 output (PLCC package only) CM8870C is fully compatible with CM8870 for 18-pin devices by grounding pins 5 and 6

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4.6.1 PIN FUNCTION TABLE FOR CM8870 IC

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SINGLE ENDED INPUT CONFIGURATION FOR CM8870 IC

Figure 4.13: Single Ended Input Configuration For Cm8870 Ic

4.6.3FUNCTIONAL DIODE TABLE OF CM8870 IC

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4.7 CAPACITOR
A capacitor

(originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used

to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric(insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.

Figure 4.14 Capacitor

4.8 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

7805 This is most common voltage regulator that is still used in embedded designs. LM7805 voltage regulator is a linear regulator made by several manufacturers like Fairchild, or ST Microelectronics. They can come in several types of packages. For output current up to 1A there may be two types of packages: TO-220 (vertical) and D-PAK (horizontal).

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Figure 4.15: Voltage Regulator 7805

With proper heat sink these LM78xx types can handle even more than 1A current. They also have Thermal overload protection, Short circuit protection. If your design exceeds 0.1A current you may chose regulator LM7805 with smaller packages and lower maximum current up to 0.1A. They come in three main types of packages SO-8, SOT89 and TO-92

Figure 4.16: Types of Voltage Regulator

4.9 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency.

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Figure 4.17: Image and Symbol of Crystal Oscillator

This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them became known as "crystal oscillators." Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to tens of megahertz. More than two billion (2109) crystals are manufactured annually. Most are used for consumer devices such as wristwatches, clocks, radios, computers, and cell phones. Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment, such as counters, signal generators, and oscilloscopes.

4.10 DIODE
The 1N4007 series (or 1N4000 series) is a family of popular 1.0 amp general purpose silicon rectifier diodes commonly used in AC adapters for common household appliances. Blocking voltage varies from 50 to 1000 volts. This diode is made in an axial-lead DO-41 plastic package.

Figure 4.18: Diode Symbol

The 1N5400 series is a similarly popular series for higher current applications, up to 3 A. These diodes come in the larger DO-201 axial package. These are fairly low-speed rectifier diodes, being inefficient for square waves of more than 15 kHz. The series was second sourced by many manufacturers. The 1N4000 series were in the
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Motorola Silicon Rectifier Handbook in 1966, as replacements for 1N2609 through 1N2617. The 1N5400 series were announced in Electrical Design News in 1968, along with the now lesser known 1.5-ampere 1N5391 series. These devices are widely used and recommended. The table below shows the maximum repetitive reverse blocking voltages of each of the members of the 1N4000 and 1N5400 series

Figure 4.19: Image of Diodes

4.11 LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits visible light when an electric current passes through it. The light is not particularly bright, but in most LEDs it is monochromatic, occurring at a single wavelength. The output from an LED can range from red (at a wavelength of approximately 700 nanometres) to blue-violet (about 400 nanometres). Some LEDs emit infrared (IR) energy (830 nanometres or longer); such a device is known as an infrared-emitting diode (IRED). An LED or IRED consists of two elements of processed material called P-type semiconductors and N-type semiconductors. These two elements are placed in direct contact, forming a region called the P-N junction. In this respect, the LED or IRED
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resembles most other diode types, but there are important differences. The LED or IRED has a transparent package, allowing visible or IR energy to pass through. Also, the LED or IRED has a large PN-junction area whose shape is tailored to the application.

Figure4.20: Snapshot of LEDs

4.11.1 BENEFITS OF LEDS

Low power requirement: Most types can be operated with battery power supplies. High efficiency: Most of the power supplied to an LED or IRED is converted into radiation in the desired form, with minimal heat production. Long life: When properly installed, an LED or IRED can function for Decades.

4.12 RESISTOR
A resistor is an electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical current in an electronic circuit. Resistors can also be used to provide a specific voltage for an active device such as a transistor. All other factors being equal, in a direct-current (DC) circuit, the current through a resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance and directly proportional to the voltage across it. This is the well-known Ohm's Law. In alternating-current (AC) circuits, this rule also applies as long as the resistor does not contain inductance or capacitance. Resistors can be fabricated in a variety of ways. The most common type in electronic devices and systems is the carbon-composition resistor. Finger annulated carbon (graphite) is mixed with

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clay and hardened. The resistance depends on the proportion of carbon to clay; the higher this ratio, the lower the resistance. Another type of resistor is made from winding Nichrome or similar wire on an insulating form. This component, called a wire wound resistor, is able to handle higher currents than a carboncomposition resistor of the same physical size. However, because the wire is wound into a coil, the component acts as an inductors as well as exhibiting resistance. This does not affect performance in DC circuits, but can have an adverse effect in AC circuits because inductance renders the device sensitive to changes in output.

Figure 4.21: Resistor Colour Code

Whether or not a material obeys Ohm's law, its resistance can be described in terms of its bulk resistivity. The resistivity, and thus the resistance, is temperature dependent. Over sizable ranges
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of temperature, this temperature dependence can be predicted from a temperature coefficient of resistance.

4.12.1 RESISTIVITY AND CONDUCTIVITY

The electrical resistance of a wire would be expected to be greater for a longer wire, less for a wire of larger cross sectional area, and would be expected to depend upon the material out of which the wire is made. Experimentally, the dependence upon these properties is a straightforward one for a wide range of conditions, and the resistance of a wire can be expressed as

The factor in the resistance which takes into account the nature of the material is the resistivity. Although it is temperature dependent, it can be used at a given temperature to calculate the resistance of a wire of given geometry. The inverse of resistivity is called conductivity. There are contexts where the use of conductivity is more convenient. Electrical conductivity () = 1/

Fig 4.22: Snapshot Of Resistor

4.13 RELAY
The electromagnetic relay consists of a multi-turn coil, wound on an iron core, to form an electromagnet. When the coil is energized, by passing current through it, the core becomes
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temporarily magnetized. The magnetized core attracts the iron armature. The armature is pivoted which causes it to operate one or more sets of contacts. When the coil is de-energized the armature and contacts are released. The coil can be energized from a low power source such as a transistor while the contacts can switch high powers such as the mains supply. The relay can also be situated remotely from the control source. Relays can generate a very high voltage across the coil when switched off. This can damage other components in the circuit. To prevent this diode is connected across the coil. As there are always some chances of high voltage spikes back from the switching circuit i.e. heater so an opt coupler/isolator MCT2e is used. It provides and electrical isolation between the microcontroller and the heater. MCT2e is a 6-pin IC with a combination of optical transmitter LED and an optical receiver as phototransistor. Microcontroller is connected to pin no 2 of MCT2e through a 470-ohm resistor. Pin no.1 is given +5V supply and pin no.4 is grounded. To handle the current drawn by the heater a power transistor BC-369 is used as a current driver. Pin no.5 of optocoupler is connected to the base of transistor. It takes all its output to VCC and activates the heater through relay circuit. The electromagnetic relay consists of a multi-turn coil, wound on an iron core, to form an electromagnet. When the coil is energized, by passing current through it, the core becomes temporarily magnetized. The magnetized core attracts the iron armature. The armature is pivoted which causes it to operate one or more sets of contacts. When the coil is de-energized the armature and contacts are released. Relay has five points. Out of the 2 operating points one is permanently connected to the ground and the other point is connected to the collector side of the power transistor. When VCC reaches the collector side i.e. signal is given to the operating points the coil gets magnetized and attracts the iron armature. The iron plate moves from normally connected (NC) position to normally open (NO) position. Thus the heater gets the phase signal and is ON. To remove the base leakage voltage when no signal is present a 470-ohm resistance is used.

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Figure 4.23: Snapshot of Relays

4.14BUZZER
A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical, electromechanical, or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm devices, timers and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke. A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer. Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical to an electric bell without the metal gong. Similarly, a relay may be connected to interrupt its own actuating current, causing the contacts to buzz. Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling to use it as a sounding board. The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that electromechanical buzzers made

Figure 4.23: Snapshot Of Buzzer

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4.15 SNAPSHOTS OF CIRCUIT DIAGRAM ON SOFTWARE PLATFORM

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