Control system component lab.

Manual 4th sem

PRACTICAL-1 Aim: To study about terms and definitions of control valve.

1. Control valve:A control valve is the most commonly used final control element used to regular material flow in a process. 2. Capacity:Rate of flow through a valve under stated continues. 3. Leakage:Quantity of field passing through an assembled valve is in fully close position under stated closure forces with pressure differential and temperature as specified. 4. Normally closed:Applying to a normally closed control valve assembly one which closed. When the actuator pressure is reduced to atmospheric. 5. Normally open:Applying to a normally open control valve assembly one which open, When the actuatorpressure is reduced to atmospheric. 6. Plug:A moveable part which provide a variable restriction in a part. 7. Rangeability:The ratio of maximum to minimum usable sizing coefficient. 8. Seat:The portion of a seat ring of valve body which a valve plug contactos for closure. 9. Stem:A rod extending through the honnet assembly to permit positioning the valve plug. 10.Trim:The part of a valve which come in to control with the flowing fluid. 11. Valve body:-

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

A housing for internal valve parts having inlet and outlet flow connection. 12. Characteristic:Relation between flow through the valve and percent rated travel as the letter is varied from zero 100%. EXERCISE QUESTIONS: 1) DEFINE RANGEBILITY.

2) DEFINE CHERECTERISTICS.

3) WHAT IS LEAKAGE?

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

Practical-2

Aim: to study about butterfly valve Butterfly valve: Construction: Figure shows the diagram of butterfly valve. Construction of these valve is simple as shown in figure. The valve consists of a single disc or vane rotating inside a circular or rectangular pipe, as shown in figure.

Operation: The most outstanding feature of tight closing. The butterfly valve, the flow leakage at the full valve closer is very small. The valve has an eccentric valve vane and a teflon seat and it is used for control of large volume low pressure flow. Range ability of these type of valve is 5 to 15. Uses: These valves are used for control of air and gas flow.
3

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

They can be used for liquid flow also if the pressure differential is not large. Advantages: Low cost. High capacity. Available in large size. Require minimum space for installation.

Disadvantages: Operating torque can be high. Tight shut off is depend on use of resilient seats which are temp. liquid.

EXERCISE QUESTIONS:

1) WHAT ARE THE MAIN USES OF BUTTERFLY VALVE?

2) WRITE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BUTTERFLY VALVE.

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

PRACTICAL- 3 Aim: To study about diaphragm valve. Diaphragm valve: Construction:The main components of the diaphragm type valve are a cylindrical body there is bonnet. It house a circular, flexible diaphragm ,comparison element and a stem. The stem can be moved up or down by threaded screw arrangement operated by a circular ring-shaped lever at the top.

Working:The top lever clockwise the stem is brought down. In the lowermost position of stem the diaphragm is pressed downward. It becomes straight in horizontal plane. Fully touches

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

the valve seat and blocks the opening between inlet and outlet fluid lines. It is fully closed position. It the types the working parts are physically isolated from the process fluids. So, diaphragm work as closure element provides isolated and sealing against leakage of fluid. The valve is simple, easy to operate and maintain. It is very useful in chemical and fertilizer industries and water treatment plants for low temperature and pressure application of liquid flow control. Due to isolation provided by diaphragm it is suitable for corrosive liquids also. Advantages: High capacity. Low cost. Good for slurry services. Self cleaning action. Provide tight shut off if pressure is low.

Disadvantages: Poor control characteristics. Short diaphragm life. Low range ability. Slow response speed. Not suitable for high pressure drop applications.

EXERCISE QUESTIONS: 1) WRITE MARITS AND DEMARITS OF DIAPHRAGM VALVE. 2) WHAT ARE THE MAIN PARTS OF DIAPHRAGM VALVE?

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

Practical-4

Aim: To study about Solenoid valve. Solenoid valve:

Construction: Figure shows the diagram of solenoid valve. Solenoid valve is a combination of two basic functions, in which a solenoid coil with its plunger as an actuator and operating on the electromagnetic principle. Valve containing an orifice in which disc or plug is positioned to restrict or allow the flow. The valve is opened or closed by the movement of the magnetic plunger which is down in to the solenoid Operation: The fully automatic valve operates when current is applied to the solenoid and automatically return to its original position when the current is cut off. These valves are available in normally open (NO) or normally close (NC) design. The NC valve will open when the current is applied to the solenoid and will close when current is cut off. The NO valve will close when current is applied and opens when current is cut off. These valves are often called magnetic valves.

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

Applications: They are widely used for emergency shut off services or for automatic opening of a valve simultaneous with the operation of a pump or other piece of equipment. It is the best to keep automatic control applications to large capacity system such as control of liquid level in strong tanks.

Uses: These valves are used for control of air and gas flow. They can be used for liquid flow also if the pressure differential is not large. Advantages:

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

Low cost. High capacity. Available in large size. Require minimum space for installation.

Disadvantages: Operating torque can be high. Tight shut off is depend on use of resilient seats which are temp. liquid.

EXERCISE QUESTIONS:

1) WRITE APPLICATIONS OF SOLENOID VALVE.

2) WRITE MERITS AND DEMARITS OF SOLENOID VALVE.

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

PRACTICAL 5

AIM:- TO STUDY DIFFERENT VALVE ACTUATORS.

THEORY:-

10

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

It translates the output signal of controller into sufficient power & motion to operate the final control element. The actuator may obtain required to employ a power amplify mechanism. There are different types of actuators.

Electric actuators 1. motor actuator 2. solenoid actuator Pneumatic actuator 1. diaphragm & spring type / spring less 2. piston and cylinder type Hydraulic actuator

Electro pneumatic actuators.

1) Electric actuator: Electric actuators are employed to provide a position output to an input electric signal. The relay type electric actuator is shown in figure. A low inertia reversible at motor drives the output through gear. A mechanical feedback is employed such that a rotation at the output rotates lever acting in a feedback spr. Increase in DC current at the input coil causes force to act on the balance beam & pulls the beam down, thus making the upper contact. This drives the motor in on direction so that the output rotates, there by pulling on the spring & rebalancing the vane coil. Armature output position is therefore proportional to an input current. The power amplifier may be inserted between the balance beam and motor. So that contacts do not have to carry large current. The amplifier may be actuated by a differential transformer or an oscillator coil on the balance bear.

11

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

2)Pneumatic actuator: Pneumatic actuator may operate directly from the pneumatic output signal from a pneumatic controller or they may employ a separate source of compressed air. There are five common methods of operation of pneumatic valve actuators. Spring actuator Spring actuator with positioner Spring less actuator Piston actuator Electro pneumatic actuator. i. Spring actuator:12

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

A spring actuator operates directly from the air pressure output of a pneumatic controller in order to provide an output position proportional to the input air pressure. The diaphragm to make of fabric base rubber & supported by a backing plate. The input air pressure acts against the diaphragm & causes a downward force which compressed the spring. A static balance the force of the air pressure against the diaphragm equals the spring compression factor. The standard input operating range of spring actuator is 3-15 psi.

Spring actuator with positioner:-

Actuator often requires positioner when static friction forces are large or when the response of the motor is too slow. The positioner consists of an input bellows, a nozzle & amplifying pilot & the feedback levers & spring. When the input air pressure increases the input bellows move to the right and causes the baffle to cover the nozzle. The change of nozzle back pressure is amplified by the pilot and transmitted to the diaphragm. The diaphragm moves down and the feedback lever compress the spring to return the baffle to a balance position. The use of the positioner results good performance in such a way Linearity is improved and hysterises is reduced.
13

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

Actuated can handle much higher static friction forces because of the amplifying pilot. Variable thrust forces on the motor stem do not disturb the stem position to any great extent. Speed of response is generally improved.

3. Spring less actuator:The actuator with a spring positioner does not improve the ability of the actuator to handle large inertia or thrust forces. Spring less actuator is useful for large thrust forces. The input pressure of 10 to 100 is required. Assume that the calion regulator is set to provide 9 psig. Pressure on the underside of the diaphragm. At static balance and no thrust forces on the actuator stem upper side pressure must be of 9 psig. If the input pressure increases and the upperside pressure is raised to a high value, the actuator stem then moves downward as the actuator stem attains the new position. This is generally from 3-10 times the thrust forces handling by a handled by spring actuator with or without positioner.

Piston actuator: The piston actuator is operated employed for larger thrust forces that can be handled by the single acting actuator and the piston is used in order to obtain long stroke. The pilot is generally a spool type diverting valve and requires an air supply of 30100 psig. When pressure is applied, the bellows moves to the right and pushes the pilot spool upward. This action opens the upper side of the cylinder to the air supply and opens the lower side to atmosphere. Thus the action is to return to the neutral position. Thus the positioner of piston is proportional to the input pressure.

14

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

3.Electropneumatic actuator: If a suitable air supply is available, a pneumatic actuator can provide very large power output and may be operated directly from an electric control system. This requires transducing the electrical output of a controller into an input variable for the actuator. The input electric signal enters the voice coil. The input coil is supported in field of a permanent magnet. So that the coil attends the force proportional to the magnitude of the input D.C. current. The force causes the deflection of balance beam covers the nozzle and results pressure acts on the feedback bellows to cause a frequency on the balance beam equal but opposite to that of the voice coil. The output pressure is proportional to input D.C. current. The electro pneumatic actuator combines the voice coil and pilot in the positions of a pneumatic actuator.

15

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

EXERCISE QUESTIONS:

1)

LIST TYPES OF ACTUATORS.

2) WHAT IS THE MAIN FUNCTION OF ACTUATORS?

16

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

PRACTICAL-6 AIM : TO STUDY ABOUT VALVE POSITIONERS.

VALVE POSITIONERS

A Valve positioner is basically a relay that senses both an instrument signal and a valve stem position. The primary function is to ensure that the valve plug position is always directly proportional to its controller output pressure. For example,if the positioner receives a 35% signal,it will Supply sufficient pressure to the actuator to cause it to stroke 35% of its travel. Effectively it may bedescribed as a Closedloop controller that has the instrument signal as I/p,An output to the valve diaphragm and feedback from the

TYPES OF VALVE POSITIONERS

1. 2. 3.

Pneumatic types valve positioners Motion balance type Force balance type Built-in type Electropneumatic type valve positioner

1. Pneumatic type valve positioner There are many valve positioners available, but two basic desing approaches have been made; motion balance and fource balance. Positioners usually are mounted on the side of diaphragm actuators. They are mecahanically connected to the valve stem or piston so that the stem piston can be compared with the pition dictated by the controller. Typical designs are show and described.

17

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

a. Motion balance type positioner figure shows a schematic of a motion balance positioner and its physical appearance is seen in figure. It consists basically of a bellows to receive the instrument signal, a beam fixed to the bellows at one end and, through linkage, to the valve stem at the other end , and a relay whose nozzle froms a fiapper-nozzie arrangement with the beam. As the bellows moves in response to a changed instrument signal, the flapper-nozzle arrangement moves, either admitting air to, or bleeding air from, the diaphragm until the valve stem position corresponds to the instrument air signal, At this point the positioner is once again in equilibrium with the changed instrument signal.

b. Motion balance pneumatic positioner

Motion balance pneumatic positioner with outside cover removed

18

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

c. Force balance type positioner A force positioner is show in figure. The output pre-ssure from a controller is applied to the bellows of the positioner. For any given controller output, there is a corresponding position of the controlled element (in this case ,a cylinder). At the slightest change in signal pressure, full supply pressure is available to ensure immediate and accurate positioning of the cylinder.

19

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

2. ELECTROPNEUMATIC Use of electronic control loops with air-operated valves has led to the development of electropneumatic positioners, a combination of an electronic-to-air transducer and a positioner. This is a force balance device and is supplied as direct or reverse acting. With direct action (increasing electrical input signal increases the air output pressure), an increase of the input signal causes the coil to produce a force on the beam, moving the flapper to cover the nozzle. The increase in nozzle back pressure causes the relay plug to close the exhaust in the diaphragm block and open the inlet, increasing positioner output pressure to the control valve actuator. the resuitant valve stem motion extends the spring (through linkage) until the spring force is balanced by the coil force. As they equalize, the nozzle back pressure decreases, allowing the relay plug to close the inlet and open the exhaust. The system is in equilibrium, and the positioner output is stabilized at a value necessary to maintain the required plug position.

ELECTROPNEUMATIC POSITIONNER SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

20

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

Mounting of valve positioner:

Application of valve positioners:

Single port valve handling high pressure drop that require large stem thrusts Valve handling viscous fluids, sludege or solids in suspension. When increased speed at operation is required. Split rang operation when two or more control valves are operated by a single controller On three-way control valves On application where valve packing is usually tight. Where control valve is located at a grate distance from controller. EXERCISE QUESTION:

1) GIVE THE CLASSIFICATION OF VALVE POSITIONERS. 2) WRITE THE APPLICATIONS OF VALVE POSITIONERS.

21

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

PRACTICAL: 7

AIM: TO STUDY THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROL VALVE. THEORY: CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROL VALVE:

The performance of the control valve is known from the few characteristics of valve, where characteristics of the control valve flow is the relationship between the valve plug position and flow through the valve. There are three types of characteristics of control valve: 1) Quick opening 2) linear 3) equal percentage

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROL VALVE.

22

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

(1) QUICK OPENING: o Quick opening provide for a maximum change in flow rate of low steam travel while maintaining a linear relationship through the most of the steam travel of capacity is obtained at 90% of the valve capacity is obtained at 30% valve opening, and the straight line relationship exists to that point. o This type of valve plugs is used primarily for ON-OFF services or in regulators. o They are also suitable for systems with constant pressure drop where linear characteristics are needed.

(2) LINEAR: o This type of flow characteristics produces flow directly proportional to the valve lift. For example, 50% of valve lift produces 50% of valve flow. o This proportional relationship produces a constant slope so that each incremental change in valve plug position produces alike incremental change in flow. o If the pressure drop is constant, characteristics are as shown in figure. o These types of valve plugs are used for liquid level control and for control applications requiring constant gain.

(3) EQUAL PERCENTAGE: o In this type, equal increment of steam travel produces equal percentage changes in existing flow. o The change is always proportional to the quantity flowing before the change. o This type of plugs is used in pressure control applications where only a small percentage of the system drop is available for the control valve.

EXERCISE QUESTIONS:

1) DRAW THE CHARECTERISTICS OF CONTROL VALVE. 2) WRITE ABOUT QUICK OPENING.

23

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

PRACTICAL- 8 AIM: TO STUDY ABOUT VALVE NOISE. Theory:In industrial environment the running machinery may generate a lot of noise. The control valves generate a considerable amount of noise is some cases. The control valve may be dealing with liquid, gases or vapour. In the process of fluid flow there is a lot of variation in the fluid velocity and pressure. Usually the velocity and pressure change may be associated with generation of noise with control valves generating the noise, noise due to cavitation and aerodynamic noise. Mechanical vibration:Sometimes the valve components resonate at natural frequency of vibration. But, noise is only a symptom indicating development of vibrations. When the mechanical components vibrate at high frequency for a long time there may be a fatigue failure of the component. Hydraulic noise:Just like mechanical vibrations and mechanical noise the other source of problem is hydraulic noise. The control valve deal with fluid flow. When liquid flow takes place through obstruction create by the valve there is a change of velocity. Aerodynamic noise:The actual liquid flow is turbine rather than laminar. The high velocity fluid passing through the valve obstruction has vena contract on the downstream side. Generation of vapor creates mixed phase of flow. It results in high velocity turbulence and in small cells pressure shocks are developed. EXERCISE QUESTIONS: 1) WHAT IS VALVE NOISE?

2) WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF VALVE NOISE?

24

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

Practical-9

AIM: TO STUDY ABOUT AC TACHOMETER.

THEORY:

What is TACHOMETER?

A Tachometer or rate generator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical angular velocity (speed) into proportional output voltage. This device may be designed for any unit that can be converted into a function of rotational motion, such as rpm, km/hour etc. Tachometer is used as a transducer for speed, it is also called speedometer. Requirements of a good Tachometer:

Linearity: The o/p voltage should vary linearly with the speed. Sensitivity: More o/p voltage should be available for small change in the speed. Magnitude of the o/p voltage should be same in both the directions of rotations. The o/p voltage should be free from undesirable disturbances like noise, harmonics, ripple etc. A.C. TACHOMETER

Working Principle: . When the two windings are placed 90 apart and one winding is excited through the a.c. source, no e.m.f. is induced in the other winding. But when the flux is linked through the short circuited rotor, e.m.f. is induced in the rotor winding which is proportional to the speed of the rotor.

25

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

CONSTRUCTION: It comprises of two main parts: (1) stator (2) rotor. The stator consists of laminated core, which has slots cut on to its inside periphery. The slots carry two windings placed 90. apart. One winding is excited from the a.c. source & is called the exciting winding. The other winding is called the o/p winding. The rotor is either of squirrel cage type or drag cup type. Here is the squirrel cage type rotor as shown in fig.

In squirrel cage type rotor aluminum bars are embedded in the laminated core. These bars are short circuited with the help of two short circuiting rings. In drag cup type an aluminum die cast rotor in the shape of a cup is used. In this type the weight of the rotor is reduced.

WORKING:

26

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

In a.c. tachometer, an alternating supply signal fed into its exciting winding, the alternating flux is produced & hence an e.m.f. is induced in its quadrature winding. When the rotor shaft is stationary & the primary (exciting) winding is excited by an a.c. input voltage, the induced voltage in the secondary (o/p) winding is zero, due to . the relative positions of the two windings being placed 90 to each other. As the rotor shaft rotates, a voltage is induced in the secondary (o/p) winding whose magnitude is directly proportional to the rotor shaft speed and the frequency is same as that of the primary (exciting) voltage. The o/p voltage is in the phase with the exciting voltage. Change in the direction of rotation of the rotor shaft causes a 180. phase shift of the o/p voltage. A positive direction of rotation of the rotor shaft is such that its o/p voltage is in phase with the exciting voltage. The polarity of the voltage depends upon the direction of the o/p rotation. The o/p voltage e(t) can be expressed as = d(t) Where K= tachometer constant = angular velocity d(t) The lap lace transform of this equn. Will be

So the transfer function will be E (s) = Ks

Since the o/p signal is a voltage, a high i/p resistance is connected with the readout instrument to give near zero current flow in the secondary winding as shown in fig.

27

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

Any current flow in the o/p winding will cause a voltage drop which will be subtracted from the measured voltage and thus give the error in the speed measurement. With this type of tachometer, speed in the range of 500 to 10,000 rpm may be measured. Advantages: Output is ripple free. Reduced maintenance. Less driving torque is needed, due to the reduced friction. Disadvantages: More voltages are not possible to produced. So sensitivity is not high compared to that of D.C. type Tachometer.

i. ii. iii.

i.

i. ii. iii. iv.

Application: As speed measuring and speed sensing devices. As electromechanical integrator in analog computers. In automatic control system. As position controlling device in feedback. EXERCISE QUESTIONS:

1) WHAT IS TACHOMETER?

28

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

2) WRITE THE APPLICATIONS OF TACHOMETER.

29

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

Practical:-10

Aim: to study about construction and working of servo motors & its characteristics.

Theory:

SERVOMOTORS:-

Servomotors are available as A.C or D.C motors. Early servomotors were generally D.C motors because the only type of control for large currents was through SCRs for many years. As transistors became capable of controlling larger currents and switching the large currents at higher frequencies, the A.C servomotor became used more often. Early servomotors were specifically designed for servo amplifiers. Today a class of motors is designed for applications that may use a servo amplifier or a variable frequency controller, which means that a motor may be used in a servo system in one application, and used in a variable frequency drive in another application. Some companies also call any closed loop system that does not use a stepper motor a servo system, so it is possible for a simple A.C induction motor that is connected to a velocity controller to be called a servomotor.

Servomotors can be classified into two parts:1. A.C servomotors. 2. D.C servomotors. A.C SERVOMOTORS:-

PRINCIPLE:-

When a 2 phase winding is evicted from a 2 phase supply, rotating magnetic field is produced. If a closed coil is placed in the field, current is induced in the coil and a toque is produced on the coil due to which it rotates.
30

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

CONSTRUCTION:-

1. It consists of a stator & rotor. Stator comprises of a laminated core with slots cut on the inside periphery. Two phase winding is the reference winding and excited from the ac voltage. Another winding is called the fixed AC voltage. It is made into two sections. These two connected either in series or in winding to produce a 90 degree phase displacement to produce a 2 phase supply from the single phase supply. 2. The rotor is of squirrel cage type. The rotor bars are of aluminium. These are short circuited at the two ends by short circuiting rings.

WORKING:-

When the motor windings are excited, rotating magnetic field is produced due to the 2 phase supply, produced due to split phasing. This induces e.m.f. in the rotor bars. As the bars are short circuited current is circulated. Due to interaction of the flux and the current, torque is produced and the rotor starts rotating in the direction of the rotating field. The direction of rotation can be reversed when the phase of the control voltage is reversed i.e. by reversing the connections of the control winding. The speed depends on the magnitude of the control voltage.
31

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

CHARACTERISTICS:-

The torque speed characteristics of a conventional induction motors are shown in figure.

1. Figure (a) it is seen that as the rotor resistance is increased, the characteristic becomes almost linear. 2. Figure (b) shows the characteristics of the 2 phase servomotor in which the rotor bars used are of high resistance. Different curves are for different control voltage. The characteristic is linear in the low speed region.

ADVANTAGES:-

1. It has low inertia due to the reduced weight of the rotor. So it can be started and stopped quickly. 2. Reduced maintenance as there are no brushes, commutator etc. DISADVANTAGES:32

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

1. Less output power for the same size of the motor as compared to D.C. motor. 2. Characteristic is not very much linear as compared to D.C. motor. APPLICATION:-

1. AC servomotors are used as control elements in A.C. servo systems. 2. These motors are not designed to supply large power. The rating is up to 100W. These are designed for frequencies of 50, 60,400, and 1000 Hz. Higher frequencies are used to reduce the size.

EXERCISE QUESTIONS:

1) WRITE THE WORKING PRINCIPLE OF AC SERVOMOTOR 2) WRITE APPLICATIONS OF AC SERVOMOTOR. 3) WRITE THE CARECTERISTICS OF AC SERVOMOTOR.

33

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

PRACTICAL:-11

AIM:- TO STUDY ABOUT STEPPER MOTOR.

THEORY:

Principle of stepper motor:

There are many kind of stepper motors. Unipolar type, Bipolar type, Single-phase type, Multi-phase type... Single-phase stepper motor is often used for quartz watch. On this page, I will explain the operation principle of the 2-phase unipolar PM type stepper motor. In the PM type stepper motor, a permanent magnet is used for rotor and coils are put on stator. The stepper motor model which has 4poles is shown in the figure on the left. In case of this motor, step angle of the rotor is 90 degrees. As for four poles, the top and the bottom and either side are a pair. coil, coil and coil, coil correspond respectively. For example, coil and coil are put to the upper and lower pole. coil and coil are rolled up for the direction of the pole to become opposite when applying an electric current to the coil and applying an electric current to the coil. It is similar about and , too. The turn of the motor is controlled by the electric current which pours into , , and . The rotor rotational speed and the direction of the turn can be controlled by this control. Different details of configuration have to be decided when choosing a motor. Almost everything is combineable

A stepper motor is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that can divide a full rotation into a large number of steps, for example, 200 steps. When commutated electronically, the motor's position can be controlled precisely, without any feedback mechanism (see open loop control).

34

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

A stepper motor's design is virtually identical to that of a low-speed synchronous AC motor. In that application, the motor is driven with two phase AC, one phase usually derived through a phase shifting capacitor. Another similar motor is the switched reluctance motor, which is a very large stepping motor with a reduced pole count, and generally closed-loop commutated. Stepper Motor Characteristics A stepper motor generates excellent torque at low speed, and falls rapidly as it speeds up. The torque curve may be extended by using current limiting drivers and increasing the driving voltage -- the best performing drive systems use line voltages. Steppers exhibit more vibration than other motor types, as the discrete step tends to snap the rotor from one position to another. This vibration can become very bad at some speeds, and can cause the motor to lose torque. The effect can be mitigated by accelerating quickly through the problem speed range, physically dampening the system, or using a microstepping driver. Motors with greater number of phases also exhibit smoother operation than those with less phases. Fundamentals of Operation A normal DC motor is commutated internally and generates torque when a voltage is impressed across its two terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, have multiple winding phases, typically two but could be three or five, which require external commutation. The number of terminals, or wires going to the motor, varies depending on it's internal circuit and the number of winding phases, but is typically four or more. The motor stator features multiple "toothed" electromagnet poles. Having the poles toothed greatly increases the effective number of magnetic poles in the motor. The rotor is also toothed, and is magnetically polarized through reluctance or contains permanent magnets. To make the rotor turn one full step, the current in one of the winding phases is reversed (which one will determine the direction). To move the rotor continuously, the winding phases are reversed alternately. If we consider a two phase stepper motor, the net effect of activating each winding is to produce a torque that draws the rotor teeth into a position between two stator poles. When a stator pole's polarity is switched, a rotor pole moves into a new equilibrium position on the other side of an unswitched stator pole. Each of those slight rotations is called a full step. It should be observed that the equilibrium positions occur every 4 full steps, so that if a motor is driven too hard, it will slip, or lose steps, in multiples of 4. Open Loop vs. Closed Loop Commutation Steppers are generally commutated open loop, ie. the driver has no feedback on where the rotor actually is. Stepper motor systems must thus generally be over engineered, especially if the load inertia is high, or there is widely varying load, so that there is no possibility that the motor will lose steps. This has often caused the system designer to consider the trade-offs between a closely sized but expensive servo system and an oversized but relatively cheap stepper.A new development in stepper control is to incorporate a rotor position feedback (eg. an encoder or resolver), so that the commutation can be made optimal for torque generation
35

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

according to actual rotor position. This turns the stepper motor into a high pole count brushless servo motor, with exceptional low speed torque and position resolution. An advance on this technique is to normally run the motor in open loop mode, and only enter closed loop mode if the rotor position error becomes too large -- this will allow the system to avoid hunting or oscillating, a common servo problem.

Two Phase Stepper Motors There are two basic winding arrangements for the electromagnetic coils in a two phase stepper motor: bipolar and unipolar. Unipolar motors A unipolar stepper motor has logically two windings per phase, one for each direction of current. Since in this arrangement a magnetic pole can be reversed without switching the direction of current, the commutation circuit can be made very simple (eg. a single transistor) for each winding. Typically, given a phase, one end of each winding is made common: giving three leads per phase and six leads for a typical two phase motor. Often, these two phase commons are internally joined, so the motor has only five leads. A microcontroller or stepper motor controller can be used to activate the drive transistors in the right order, and this ease of operation makes unipolar motors popular with hobbyists; they are probably the cheapest way to get precise angular movements. (For the experimenter, one way to distinguish common wire from a coil-end wire is by measuring the resistance. Resistance between common wire and coil-end wire is always half of what it is between coil-end and coil-end wires. This is due to the fact that there is actually twice the length of coil between the ends and only half from center (common wire) to the end.) A six lead unipolar motor may be driven by a bipolar driver. In this case, one of the windings on each phase is wasted as it never carries current. Bipolar motor Bipolar motors have logically a single winding per phase. The current in a winding needs to be reversed in order to reverse a magnetic pole, so the driving circuit must be more complicated, typically with an H-bridge arrangement. There are two leads per phase, none are common.

36

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

Because windings are better utilised, they are more powerful than a unipolar motor of the same weight.

8 Lead Stepper An 8 lead stepper is wound like a unipolar stepper, but the leads are not joined to common internally to the motor. This kind of motor can be wired in several configurations:

Unipolar. Bipolar with series windings. This gives higher inductance but lower current per winding. Bipolar with parallel windings. This requires higher current but can perform better as the winding inductance is reduced. Bipolar with a single winding per phase. This method will run the motor on only half the available windings, which will reduce the available low speed torque but require less current.

Applications Computer-controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning systems. They are typically digitally controlled as part of an open loop system, and are simpler and more rugged than closed loop servo systems. Stepper motors are used in floppy disk drives, flatbed scanners, printers, plotters and many more devices. Note that hard drives no longer use stepper motors to position the read/write heads, instead utilising a voice coil and servo feedback for head positioning. Stepper motors can also be used for positioning of valve pilot stages, for fluid control systems. EXERCISE QUESTIONS: 1) WRITE WORKING PRINCIPAL OF STEPPER MOTOR.

2) WRITE THE APPLICATIONS OF STEPPER MOTOR.

37

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

Practical-12

AIM: TO STUDY ABOUT GYROSCOPE.

Theory :-

GYROSCOPE:

A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining orientation, based on the principle of conservation of angular momentum. The essence of the device is a spinning wheel on an axle. The device, once spinning, tends to resist changes to its orientation due to the angular momentum of the wheel. In physics this phenomenon is also known as gyroscopic inertia or rigidity in space. Description and diagram

38

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

Diagram of a gyro wheel. Reaction arrows about the output axis (blue) correspond to forces applied about the input axis (green), and vice versa. Within mechanical combinations or devices constituting portions of machines, a conventional gyroscope is a mechanism comprising a rotor journaled to spin about one axis, the journals of the rotor being mounted in an inner gimbal or ring, the inner gimbal being journaled for oscillation in an outer gimbal which in turn is journaled for oscillation relative to a support. The outer gimbal or ring is mounted so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane determined by the support. The outer gimbal possesses one degree of rotational freedom and its axis possesses none. The inner gimbal is mounted in the outer gimbal so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane, which axis is always perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the outer gimbal. The axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The inner gimbal possesses two degrees of rotational freedom and its axis possesses one. The rotor is journaled to spin about an axis which is always perpendicular to the axis of the inner gimbal. Hence the rotor possesses three degrees of rotational freedom and its axis possesses two. The wheel responds to a force applied about the input axis by a reaction force about the output axis. The 3 axes are perpendicular, and this cross-axis response is the simple essence of the gyroscopic effect. The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated by consideration of the front wheel of a bicycle. If the wheel is leaned away from the vertical so that the top of the wheel moves to the left, the forward rim of the wheel also turns to the left. In other words, rotation on one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the third axis. A gyroscope flywheel will roll or resist about the output axis depending upon whether the output gimbals are of a free- or fixed- configuration. Examples of some free-output-gimbal devices would be the attitude reference gyroscopes used to sense or measure the pitch, roll and yaw attitude angles in a spacecraft or aircraft.

a gyro wheel in action

The center of gravity of the rotor can be in a fixed position. The rotor simultaneously spins about one axis and is capable of oscillating about the two other axes, and thus, except for its inherent resistance due to rotor spin, it is free to turn in any direction about the fixed point. Some gyroscopes have mechanical equivalents substituted for one or more of the elements, e.g., the spinning rotor may be suspended in a fluid, instead of being pivotally mounted in
39

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

gimbals. A control moment gyroscope (CMG) is an example of a fixed-output-gimbal device that is used on spacecraft to hold or maintain a desired attitude angle or pointing direction using the gyroscopic resistance force. In some special cases, the outer gimbal (or its equivalent) may be omitted so that the rotor has only two degrees of freedom. In other cases, the center of gravity of the rotor may be offset from the axis of oscillation, and thus the center of gravity of the rotor and the center of suspension of the rotor may not coincide.

Properties

A gyroscope in operation with freedom in all three axes.

The rotor will maintain its spin axis direction regardless of the orientation of the outer frame. A gyroscope exhibits a number of behaviours including precession and nutation. Gyroscopes can be used to construct gyrocompasses which complement or replace magnetic compasses (in ships, aircraft and spacecraft, vehicles in general), to assist in stability (bicycle, Hubble Space Telescope, ships, vehicles in general) or be used as part of an Inertial guidance system. Gyroscopic effects are used in toys like yo-yos and Powerballs. Many other rotating devices, such as flywheels, behave gyroscopically although the gyroscopic effect is not used. The fundamental equation describing the behavior of the gyroscope is:

where the vectors and are, respectively, the torque on the gyroscope and its angular momentum, the scalar is its moment of inertia, the vector is its angular velocity, and the vector is its angular acceleration.

40

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

It follows from this that a torque applied perpendicular to the axis of rotation, and therefore perpendicular to , results in a motion perpendicular to both and . This motion is called precession. The angular velocity of precession is given by the cross product:

Precession on a gyroscope Precession can be demonstrated by placing a spinning gyroscope with its axis horizontal and supported loosely (frictionless toward precession) at one end. Instead of falling, as might be expected, the gyroscope appears to defy gravity by remaining with its axis horizontal, when the other end of the axis is left unsupported and the free end of the axis slowly describes a circle in a horizontal plane, the resulting precession turning. This effect is explained by the above equations. The torque on the gyroscope is supplied by a couple of forces: gravity acting downwards on the device's centre of mass, and an equal force acting upwards to support one end of the device. The motion resulting from this torque is not downwards, as might be intuitively expected, causing the device to fall, but perpendicular to both the gravitational torque (downwards) and the axis of rotation (outwards from the point of support), i.e. in a forward horizontal direction, causing the device to rotate slowly about the supporting point. As the second equation shows, under a constant torque due to gravity or not, the gyroscope's speed of precession is inversely proportional to its angular momentum. This means that, for instance, if friction causes the gyroscope's spin to slow down, the rate of precession increases. This continues until the device is unable to rotate fast enough to support its own weight, when it stops precessing and falls off its support, mostly because friction against precession cause another precession that goes to cause the fall. By convention, these three vectors, torque, spin, and precession, are all oriented with respect to each other according to the right-hand rule. To easily ascertain the direction of gyro effect, simply remember that a rolling wheel tends, when entering a corner, to turn over to the inside.
41

Control system component lab. Manual 4th sem

EXERCISE QUESTIONS:

1) WHAT IS GYROSCOPE?

2) DRAW A NEAT SKETCH OF GYROSCOPE.

42