Basic Functions
Polynomials
Exponential Functions
Trigonometric Functions
sin x
lim 1
x 0 x
Trigonometric Identities
The Number e
Polynomials
Definition Polynomial is an expression of the type
P a0 a1x a2 x 2 K an x n
where the coefficients a0 , a1,K , an are real numbers and an 0.
The polynomial P is of degree n.
A number x for which P(x)=0 is called a root of the
polynomial P.
Theorem A polynomial of degree n has at most n real roots.
Polynomials may have no real roots, but a polynomial of
an odd degree has always at least one real root.
Graphs of Linear Polynomials
Graphs of linear polynomials y = ax + b are straight lines. The coefficient
“a” determines the angle at which the line intersects the x –axis.
Graphs of the linear
polynomials:
1. y = 2x+1 (the red line)
2. y = -3x+2 (the black line)
3. y = -3x + 3 (the blue line)
Graphs of Higher Degree
Polynomials
The behaviour of a polynomial P a a x K a x for large positive
0 1 n
n
or negative values x is determined by the highest degree term "an x n ".
If an 0 and n is odd, then as x also P x .
Likewise: as x also P x .
If an 0 and n is even, then as x , P x .
Problem The picture on the right shows the
graphs and all roots of a 4th degree
polynomial and of a 5th degree
polynomial. Which is which?
Solution The blue curve must be the graph of
the 4th degree polynomial because
of its behavior as x grows or gets
smaller.
Measuring of Angles (1)
Angles are formed by two half-lines starting
from a common vertex. One of the half-lines
is the starting side of the angle, the other one
is the ending side. In this picture the starting
side of the angle is blue, and the red line is
the ending side.
Angles are measured by drawing a circle
of radius 1 and with center at the vertex
of the angle. The size, in radians, of the
angle in question is the length of the
black arc of this circle as indicated in the
picture.
In the above we have assumed that the angle is
oriented in such a way that when walking along
the black arc from the starting side to the
ending side, then the vertex is on our left.
Measuring of Angles (2)
The first picture on the right shows a
positive angle.
The angle becomes negative if the orientation
gets reversed. This is illustrated in the second
picture.
This definition implies that angles are always
between -2π and 2π. By allowing angles to
rotate more than once around the vertex, one
generalizes the concept of angles to angles
greater than 2π or smaller than - 2π.
Trigonometric Functions (1)
Consider positive angles , as indicated in the pictures.
1 sin
Definition
The quantities sin and cos are defined
by placing the angle at the origin with starting
side on the positive x -axis. The intersection point cos
of the end side and the circle with radius 1 and with sin
center at the origin is cos ,sin .
This definition applies for positive angles.
We extend that to the negative angles by
1
setting
sin sin and
cos
cos cos .
Trigonometric Functions (2)
sin2 cos2 1
1
This basic identity follows directly from the sin
definition.
sin cos
tan cot
Definition
cos sin cos
Graphs of:
2. sin(x), the red curve,
and
3. cos(x), the blue curve.
Trigonometric Functions (3)
The size of an angle is measured as the length
α of the arc, indicated in the picture, on a circle
of radius 1 with center at the vertex.
1
On the other hand, sin(α) is the length of the red sin
line segment in the picture.
Lemma For positive angles , sin .
The above inequality is obvious by the above picture. For negative angles α
the inequality is reversed.
Trigonometric Functions (4)
Trigonometric functions sin and cos are
everywhere continuous, and lim sin 0 and lim cos 1.
0 0
In view of the picture on the right, we have, for positive angles ,
sin tan .
1
Hence 1 . tan
sin cos
sin
This implies: lim 1
0 sin
sin
Lemma lim 1 1
0
Examples
sin 2 x
Problem 1 Compute lim .
x 0 x
sin 2 x sin 2 x
Solution Rewrite 2 .
x 2x
sin 2 x
By the previous Lemma, lim 1.
x 0 2x
sin 2 x sin 2 x
Hence 2 x 0 2.
x 2x
Examples
sin sin x
Problem 2 Compute lim .
x 0 x
sin sin x sin sin x sin x
Solution Rewrite .
x sin x x
sin sin x
By the previous Lemma, lim 1.This follows
x 0 sin x
by substituting sin x . As x 0, also 0.
sin sin x sin sin x sin x
Hence x 0 1.
x sin x x
Trigonometric Identities 1
Defining Identities
1 1 1
csc sec cot
sin cos tan
sin cos
tan cot
cos sin
Derived Identities
sin sin cos =cos
sin 2 sin cos 2 cos
sin2 +cos2 =1
sin x y sin x cos y cos x sin y
cos x y cos x cos y sin x sin y
Trigonometric Identities 2
Derived Identities (cont’d)
sin x y sin x cos y cos x sin y
cos x y cos x cos y sin x sin y
tan x tan y tan x tan y
tan x y tan x y
1 tan x tan y 1 tan x tan y
cos 2 x cos2 x sin2 x sin 2 x 2sin x cos x
cos 2 x 2cos2 x 1 cos 2 x 1 2sin2 x
1 cos 2 x 1 cos 2 x
cos2 x sin2 x
2 2
Exponential Functions
Exponential functions are functions of the form
f x ax .
Assuming that a 0, a x is a well defined expression for all x ¡ .
The picture on the right shows the graphs of the
functions:
x
1
1) y , the red curve
2
2) y 1x , the black line
x
3
3) y , the blue curve, and
2
x
5
4) y , the green curve.
2
The Number e
a=5/2
From the picture it appears obvious that,
a=1/2
as the parameter a grows, also the slope
of the tangent, at x 0, of the graph of the
a=3/2
function a x grows.
Definition a=1
The mathematical constant e is defined
as the unique number e for which the slope The slope of a tangent
of the tangent of the graph of e x at x 0 line is the tangent of the
angle at which the
is 1. tangent line intersects
the x-axis.
e≈2.718281828
