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CHAPTER FOUR
4. KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW
INTRODUCTION: -Kinematics of fluid deals with the geometry of motion, i.e. space
time relation ships of fluids only without regards to the forces causing the motion.
They are generally deals with velocity & acceleration of fluid, and the description and
visualization of motion.
The concept of a free body diagram, as used in static of rigid bodies in a fluid static is
usually inadequate for the analysis of moving fluids. Instead we frequently find the
concepts of system & control volume to be useful in the analysis of fluid mechanics.
A fluid system refers to a specific mass of fluid within the boundaries defined by a closed
surface. The shape of the system, & so the boundaries, may change with time, as when
liquid flows through a constriction, as a fluid moves& deforms, so the system containing
it moves & deforms.
In contrast, a control volume refers to a fixed region in space, which doesnt move or
change shape. It is usually chosen as a region that fluid flows in to & out of it.
The control volume approach is also called the Eulerian approach.
In the Eulerian method the observers concern is to know what happens at any given point
in the space, which is filled by fluid in motion, what are the velocities, acceleration,
pressure, etc at various parts at a given time.
Therefore, Eulerian method is mostly used because it is more useful in the analysis of the
majority of engineering problems.
4.1. DIMENSION OF FLOW
A Fluid flow said to be one, two or three-dimensional flow depending up on the number
of independent space coordinate & required to describe the flow.
When the dependent variables (example, velocity, pressure density etc) are a function of
one space co-ordinate say x- coordinate) it is known as one-dimensional flow.
Example of one dimensional flow (1D): flow through pipes & channels, between
boundaries, etc if the velocity distribution is considered constant at each cross-section.
One-dimension is taken along the central streamline of the flow dependent variables
vary only with x- direction (or s- direction).

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Fig 4.1 One-dimensional flow in a pipe
When the dependent variables vary only with two-space coordinates, the flow is known
as two-dimensional flow (2D).
Example: Flow over a weir
Fig 4.2 Two-dimensional flow over a weir
Generally a, fluid is a rather complex three- dimensional, time dependent phenomenon,
i.e., V= V(x, y, z, t). In almost any flow situation, the velocity field actually contains all
three-velocity components (u, v, w) & each is a function of all three-space coordinates (x,
y, z).
Example of a 3D flow: the flow of air past an airplane wing provides a complex three-
dimensional flow.
4. 1.1 Velocity & Acceleration in a fluid flow
In general, fluids flow from one point in space to another point as a function of time. This
motion of fluid is described in terms of the velocity & acceleration of the fluid particles.
At a given time instant, a description of any fluid property (such as density, pressure,
Velocity, & acceleration) may be given as a function of the fluids location.

i.e. V = u (x, y, z, t)i +v (x, y, z, t)j + w (x, y, z, t)k
An infinitesimal change in velocity ( u ) is given by:

t
t
u
z
z
u
y
y
u
x
x
u
u

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The acceleration components are given by:

t y
w
y
v
x
u a
t
v
z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u a
t
u
z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u a
z
y
x

a
y,
a
y
& a
z
are called total or substantial acceleration in the x, y & z direction, the
components are called convective acceleration excluding the last expression

,
_

t t
v
t
u
,& ,
Which are called local acceleration
Total acceleration
k a j a i a a
z y x
+ +
Convective acceleration it is instantaneous space rate of change of velocity,
Local acceleration: - it is the local time rate of change of velocity,
Example1: A fluid flow is described by the velocity field:
V = 5x
3
j - 15 x
2
y j + t k. Evaluate the velocity & acceleration components at pints
(1, 2, 3, 1)
4.2. Describing the pattern of flow
Although fluid motion is complicated, there are various concepts that can be used to help
in the visualization & analysis of flow fields. This pattern of flow may be described by
mean of streamlines, stream tubes, path lines and streamlines.
Stream lines: - it is an imaginary curve drawn through a flowing fluid in such a way
that the tangent to it at any point gives the direction of the velocity of flow at those
points.
Fig. 4.4 streamlines
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Since the velocity vector is everywhere tangent to the streamlines, there can be no
component of velocity at right angles to the streamlines and hence there is no flow across
the streamlines.
Since the instantaneous velocity at a point in a fluid must be unique in magnitude &
direction, the same point cant pass more than one streamlines. Therefore, streamlines
dont cross or intersect each other.
The velocity vector at point p must be tangent to the streamline at that point.
v

u
Therefore,
u
v
dx
dy
tan



0 vdx dy u
.Equation of streamlines
Example: - Given the velocity field:
V = 5x
3
i 15x
2
y j
Obtain the equation of the streamlines.
Stream tube: - is a tube imaginated to be formed by a group of streamlines passing
through a small closed curve.
- A fluid can enter or leave a stream tube only at its ends
Fig. 4.4 A stream tube
Path line: - a path line is a line traced out by a given single fluid particle as it moves
from one point to another over a period of time.
In steady flow path lines & streamlines are identical.
Streak lines: - A streak line consists of all particles in flows that have previously
passed through a common point. They can be obtained by taking instantaneous
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photographs of marked particles that all passed through a given location in the flow field
at some earlier time.
In experimental work often a color or a dye is injected in the flowing fluid, in order to
trace the motion of the fluid particles. The resulting trail of color is known as streak lines.
For steady flow, each successively injected particle follows precisely behind the previous
one, forming a steady streak line that is exactly behind the previous one, forming a steady
streak line that is exactly the same as the streamline through the injection point.
Hence, path line, streamlines & streak lines are the same for steady flows.

4.3 Types of flow
A. Classification according to type of fluid
(i) Ideal fluid flow the fluid is assumed to have no viscosity. The velocity
distribution is thus assumed uniform ---- (idealized)
(ii) Real fluid flow: viscosity is taken in to consideration, which leads to the
development of shear stress b/n moving layers. However, some fluids such as
water are near to an ideal fluid, and this simplifying assumption enables
mathematical methods to be adopted in the solution of certain flow problems.
(iii) Compressible fluid flow: - if variation of pressure results in considerable
changes in volume & density. Gases are generally treated as compressible.
(iv) Incompatible fluid flow - if extremely large variation in pressure is required to
affect very small changes in volume. Liquids are generally treated as
incompressible.
B. Classification according to variation of velocity, displacement and etc
(i) Steady flow: - A flow is said to be steady if at any point in the flowing fluid
characteristic such as velocity, pressure, density etc dont change with time.
However this characteristic may be different at different points in the flowing
fluid.

etc
t
p
t
v
, 0 , 0

(ii) Unsteady flow: - if at any point in the flowing fluid any one of all of the
characteristics, which describes the behavior of fluids in motion changes with
time.

etc
t
p
t
v
, 0 , 0

(iii) Uniform flow: - this occurs when the velocity both in magnitude & direction
remains constant with respect to distance, i. e it doesnt change from point to
point
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0

s
v
Example: flow of fluid under pressure through long tube of constant diameter.
(iv) Non- uniform flow: - if there is a change in velocity either in magnitude or
direction with respect to distance , then:

0

s
v
(v) Laminar flow: - in laminar flow the particles of fluid move in orderly manners
& the steam lines retain the same relative position in successive cross section.
Laminar flow is associated with low velocity of flow and viscous fluids.
(vi) Turbulent flow: - Here the fluid particles flow in a disorder manner occupying
different relative positions in successive cross section. Turbulent flow is
associated with high velocity flows.
Around 1883, Reynolds established the boundary between the laminar and turbulent
flow, using the dimensionless number called Reynoldss number, Re.
R
e
=

VD
Where V- mean velocity
D- Diameter
- Kinematics viscosity
Reynolds showed that if
R
e
< 2000 ---- laminar flow
R
e
> 4000 ----- Turbulent
In b/n 2000 & 4000 it is transition flow.
4.3. Continuity Equation
The continuity equation is a mathematical statement of the principle of conservation of
mass. Consider the following fixed region with flowing fluid. Since fluid is neither
created nor destroyed with in the region it may be stored that the rate of increase of mass
contained with in the region must be equal to the differences b/n the rate at which the
fluid mass enters the region & the rate of which it leaves the region.
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F
i
x
e
d

r
e
g
i
o
n
Mass of fluid entering
the region
Mass of fluid leaving the
region
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However, if the flow is steady, the rate of increase of the fluid mass with in the region is
equal to zero; then the rate at which fluid mass enters the region is equal to the rate at
which the fluid mass leaves the region.
Considers flow through a portion of a stream tube:
dA
1
V
1

1

At section-1
Area of elementary tube = dA
1

Average velocity = V
1

Density =
1

Mass of fluid per unit time flowing past section-1 =
1
* dA
1
* V1 [ kg/s ]
At section-2
Area of elementary tube= dA
2

Average velocity = V
2

Density =
2

Mass of fluid flowing per unit of time past section 2 =
2
*dA
2
*V
2
[ kg/s ]
For steady flow, by the principle of conservation of mass

1
dA
1
V
1
=
2
d

A
2
V
2
For the entire area of the stream tube:

2 2 2
2
1 1
1
1
V dA V dA
A A



= constant
If
1
and
2
are average densities at section (1) and (2), then

VA dA V dA V
A A


2
2 2 2
1
1 1 1
= constant

1
V
1
A
1
=
2
V
2
A
2
= VA

=

constant
This is equation of continuity applicable to steady, one-dimensional flow of compressible
as well as incompressible (
1
=
2
) flow.
For incompressible flow, = constant and doesnt vary form point to point,
1
=
2

A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2
= Q = constant
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dA
2
V
2

2

1
2
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This is continuity equation for steady incompressible flow.
Q is the discharge (or volumetric flow rate or flow) defined as
Q = AV [m
2
m/s = m
3
/s = Volume/time]
Q = A
1
V
2
= A
2
V
2
---
1
1
A
Q
V
,
2
2
A
Q
V
Hence, the velocity of flow is inversely proportional to the area of flow section. This is
useful for most engineering application.
The general equation of continuity for three dimensional (3D) flow can be derived as
follows.
Consider a flow through a rectangular parallelepiped of dimensions:
z y x , ,
y

u
x
x
u
u

+
) (
z
x
Fig. 4.5 Derivation of a differential equation of continuity
The mass of fluid flowing per unit time through the left face ABCD:

( ) z y u
The mass of fluid flowing out of the parallelepiped through face ABCD:
z y x
x
u
u

)
) (
(

+
The net mass of fluid that remain in the parallelepiped per unit time:

z y x
x
u
z y x
x
u
z y u z y u

1
]
1

+
) (
)
) (
(
By similar procedure the mass of fluid remaining in the others two pairs of faces (Y, Z
directions)
Y- direction =
( ) z y x v
y

Z- direction =
( ) z y x w
z

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Y
X
Z
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The net total mass of fluid that remains in the parallelepiped per unit time is :

( ) ( ) ( )
1
1
]
1

z y x
z
w
y
v
x
u


The mass of fluid in the parallelepiped is:

( ) z y x

its rate of increase with time is:

( ) ( ) 2

z y x
z
z y x
t

Equating 1 & 2 we get:

t
w
z
v
y
u
x

1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+
1
]
1

) (


0

,
_

,
_

,
_

z
w
y
v
x
u
t


(General continuity equation in 3D Flow)

0

,
_

,
_

,
_

z
V
r
V
r r
r v
t
z t

In Cylindrical coordinate
system
For steady flow,
0

,
_

,
_

,
_

z
w
y
v
x
u
(Steady compressible fluid)

For incompressible flow, doesnt change with x, y, z, and t
= constant

0

z
w
y
v
x
u
- (Continuity equation for incompressible,
steady flow in 3D)
4.4 Stream function (

) and velocity potential ()

Stream function (

)
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Stream function (

) (psi) is the mathematical postulation such that its differentiation

with respect to x gives the velocity in y-direction (generally taken as ve) and its
differentiation with respect to y gives the velocity in x-direction.

y
u

;
x
v

Some of the salience characteristics of a stream function are enumerated below:
Since

is a function of x and y, its total differential is

udy vdx dy
y
dx
x
d +

--------------------------1
Further, for a two-dimensional motion parallel to x-y plane the streamline for an
incompressible fluid is prescribed as:

dx
dy
u
v

;
0 vdx udy
----------------------------------------2
From equation 1 and 2 it follows that

0 d
or
t cons tan
i.e., the stream function is constant along a streamline. The streamlines are thus lines of
constant stream function. However, the stream function varies from one streamline to
another. Each streamline of flow pattern can be represented as:


1 1
C ;
2 2
C
Substitute for u and v in terms of stream function in the continuity equation
for an incompressible fluid:

0
0
0
2 2

,
_

,
_

y x y x
x y y x
y
v
x
u


This is true. And hence, the stream function satisfies the equation of continuity.
Let A and B be the two points lying on the streamlines prescribed by stream function

and
d +
, respectively. From the figure below, the velocity vector V
perpendicular to line AB has components u and v in the direction of x and y-axis
respectively. From continuity consideration:
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Fig 4.6 Mathematical and physical concept of stream function
Flow across AB = flow across AO + flow across OB

udy vdx Vds +
The minus sign indicates that the velocity v is acting in the downward direction.

d dq e i
d dy
y
dx
x
Vds

. .
Evidently, the stream function can also be defined as the flux or flow rate between two
streamlines. The units of

are m
2
/s; discharge per unit thickness of flow.
The line joining the points A and B may be AMB or ANB but the discharge
between the two streamlines will remain the same. The quantity of fluid flowing past
the line AB would also remain same provided no fluid enters or leaves between the
points BB. Apparently, the fluid flow is unaffected by the shape of the line between
A and B.
Velocity potential ()
A fluid element in the shape of cube, which is initially at one position, will move to
another position during a short time interval dt. because of generally complex velocity
variation within the field, we expect the element to not only translate from one position
but change in shape (angular deformation). The form of movement may be in the form of:
a) Translation or rotation and
b) Volume dilation or angular deformation
Translation: - means simply picking up the element and moving a distance during a
small time dt.
Rotation: - is defined as the average angular velocity of two elements originally at right
angles to each other.
Flow is described rotational if every fluid element rotates about its axis which is
perpendicular to the plane of motion.
Consider a rectangular fluid element occupying the position ABCD at a certain time in a
two-dimensional x-y plane in the figure below. The velocity components in the x-
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direction at points A and D are u and
dy
y
u
u

+
respectively. Since these velocities are
different, there will be an angular velocity developed for the linear element AD. Similarly
the velocity components in y-direction at points A and B are v and
dx
x
v
v

+

respectively, and these different velocities will result in to an angular velocity of the
linear element AB. Apparently during the time interval dt the element AB and AD would
move relative to point A, the fluid element gets displaced and occupies the dotted
position ABCD.
y

dy
y
u
u

+
v
dx
x
v
v

+
d
2
dy
d
1
u

dx
x
Fig.4.7 Rotation of fluid element
Taking the counter clockwise direction as positive:
The angular velocity of element AB about the z-axis is

AB
= angular displacement of element AB per unit time

dt
d
1

From the figure, tand

1
d
1
=
( )
dx
dt dx
x
v
.

(for the horizontal element dx).

x
v
dt
d
AB

The angular velocity of element AD about the z-axis is

AD
= angular displacement of element AD per unit time

dt
d
2

dt
y
u
dy
dt dy
y
u
d d

,
_

.
) tan(
2 2

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y
u
dt
d
AD

Average of the angular velocity of line AB (dx element) and line AD (dy element)
gives the rotation
z
of the element ABCD about z-axis.
i.e.,

,
_

y
u
x
v
z
2
1

Rotations about the other two axes are defined as:

,
_

z
v
y
w
x
2
1

,
_

x
w
z
u
y
2
1

Angular velocity is a vector quantity:

k z j i
y x
+ +
Where
x
,
y
and
z
-

are rotation components
Irrotational flow: occurs when the cross-gradient of the velocity (or shear) are zero
or cancel each other. i.e., the fluid element has a zero angular velocity about its own
mass centre.
i.e.,

,
_

y
u
x
v
z
2
1

= 0 (for two-dimensional flow)

Velocity potential

(phi) is a function such that its derivative in any direction gives the
velocity in that direction.
i.e.,
x
u

;
y
v

Lines of constant potential function are termed as equipotential lines.

is a function of x and y alone, its total differential is

vdy udx dy
y
dx
x
d +

for an equipotential line, the potential function

is constant
i.e.,

0 +

vdy udx dy
y
dx
x
d

u
v
dx
dy


Which prescribes the slope of equipotential line at any point.
For two dimensional(x-y plane), Irrotational flow:

0
2
1

,
_

y
u
x
v
z

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0
0
2 2

,
_

,
_

y x x y
x y y x


For continuity equation:

0
0
2
2
2
2
2
2

z y x
z
w
y
v
x
u

This equation is known as Laplacs equation.
The in viscid, incompressible, Irrotational flow fields are governed by Laplaces
equation.
The above discussion with reference to stream function and velocity potential function
leads us to conclude that:
- Stream function applies to both rotational and irrotational flows. The flow has
only to be steady and incompressible,
- Potential function exists only for irrotational flow,
- For irrotational flow, both stream function and the velocity potential function
satisfies Laplace equation; consequently they are interchangeable. We have the
following important relationships between the stream function and potential
function for a steady, irrotational and incompressible fluid flow.
x y
u

;
y x
v

-----------------Cauchy-Riemann equation
Orthogonality of streamlines and equipotential lines
Stream function of x and y, its total differential is

dy
y
dx
x
d

But the stream function

) , ( y x
is a constant along a streamline,
i.e.,
0

dy
y
dx
x
d

u
v
y
x
dx
dy

The slope of a streamline for constant

is

u
v
dx
dy

---------------------i
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Further

is a function of x and y, and therefore its total differential is

dy
y
dx
x
d

But the potential function

) , ( y x
is constant along an equipotential line
i.e.,

0

dy
y
dx
x
d

v
u
y
x
dx
dy

The slope of an equipotential line for constant

is

u
v
dx
dy

--------------------------ii
Combining expressions i and ii
Slope of streamline * slope of equipotential line

1 *
,
_

v
u
u
v
--------------------------------*
This equation is a mathematical statement of the fact that equipotential lines are normal
to the streamlines. The orthognality between the streamlines and equipotential lines
serves to draw a flow net.
Flow Net
Flow net is a graphical representation of streamlines and equipotential lines for a
potential flow. Flow nets are drawn to indicate flow patterns in case of two-dimensional
floe, or even three-dimensional flow. The flow net consists of
- a system of streamlines so spaced that the rate of flow q is the same between each
successive pair of lines, and
- another system of lines normal to the streamlines and so spaced that the distance
between the normal lines equals the distance between adjacent streamlines.
Streamlines and equipotential lines are drawn between the flow boundaries with the
requirements that they form small squares.
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