INTRODUCTION

Fluid Mechanics in Engineering

Fluid mechanics deals with behavior of fluids at rest and in motion. Many engineering
applications involve fluid in motion or stationary. Examples include home and city water
supply system, transportation of oil and natural gas in pipelines, flow of blood in vessels, air
flow over an aircraft, motion of a ship in water, and many others. Design and operation of all
such devices require a good understanding of fluid behavior when it is stationary or in motion,
and its interaction with the surface in contact.

Definition of a Fluid

Consider imaginary chunks of both a solid and a fluid. Chunks are fixed along one edge, and
a shear force is applied at the opposite edge. A short time after application of the force, the
solid assumes a deformed shape which can be measured by the angle 1. If we maintain this
force and examine the solid at a later time, we find that deformation is exactly the same, that
is 2=1. On application of a shear force, a solid assumes a certain deformed shape and retains
that shape as long as the force is applied.

Figure 1. Solid and fluid behavior under shear stress.

1
Consider the response of the fluid to the applied shear force. A short time after application of
the force, a fluid assumes a deformed shape, as indicated by the angle 1. At a later time, the
deformation is greater, 2>1, in fact the fluid continues to deform as long as the force is
applied. Thus we can define a fluid:

A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously under the action of applied shear force.

The process of continuous deformation is called flowing.

Scope of Fluid Mechanics

As pointed out above, many engineering applications involve fluids in motion or stationary.
We cannot consider all these specific problems of fluid mechanics. Instead, the purpose of
this course is to introduce the basic laws and associated physical concepts that provide the
basis or starting point in the analysis of any problem in fluid mechanics.

Basic Equations

Analysis of any fluid mechanics problem begins, either directly or indirectly with the basic
laws governing the fluid motion. The basic laws, which are applicable to any fluid, are,

1. Conservation of mass
2. Newton’s second law of motion
3. Moment of momentum
4. The first law of thermodynamics
5. The second law of thermodynamics

It should be emphasized that not all basic laws are required to solve every problem. However,
in some problems, it is necessary to bring into the analysis additional relations, in the form of
equation of state or constitutive equations; i.e. equation of state

p = RT

2
METHOD OF ANALYSIS

The first step in solving a problem is to define the system that is going to be analyzed. The
basic laws can be applied to a control volume or to a system.

System and Control Volume

A system is defined as a fixed, identifiable quantity of mass.

The boundaries of a system may be fixed or moveable;

however, there is no mass transfer across the system
boundaries; i.e. the amount of mass in the system is
fixed.

Control Volume

A control volume is an arbitrary volume in space through which fluid flows.

Differential vs. Integral Approach

The basic laws that we apply in fluid mechanics problems can be formulated in differential
and integral forms. The solution of differential equations provides a means of determining the
detailed (point by point) behavior of the basic laws.

3
System of Units

The SI system of units will be used. In the SI system of units

quantity unit
mass kg
length m
time sec
temperature K
force N

FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

Fluid as a Continuum

All fluids are composed of molecules in constant motion. However, in most engineering
applications we are interested in the average or macroscopic effects of many molecules. We
thus treat a fluid as an infinitely divisible substance, a continuum, and do not concern with the
behavior of individual molecule.

For continuum model to be valid, the smallest sample of the matter of practical interest must
contain a large number of molecules so that meaningful averages can be calculated.

The condition for the validation of continuum approach is that distance between the
molecules of the fluid should be smaller than the smallest characteristic length of the problem.

As a consequence of the continuum assumption fluid properties and flow properties can be
expressed as continuous functions of position and time, i.e.

 =  (x,y,z,t)
u = u (x,y,z,t)
T = T (x,y,z,t)
p = p (x,y,z,t)
…

4
The value of a fluid property ar a point is defined as an average considering a volume around
that point.

VELOCITY FIELD

Continuum assumption led to description of all the fluid properties at every point in the flow
domain.

The fluid velocity at a point C is defined as the velocity of the center of gravity of volume 
surrounding the point C.

5
The velocity at any point in the flow field is a function of space and time, i.e.

 
V = V ( x, y, z, t )


Velocity vector V , can be written in terms of scalar components
   
V = u ı + vj + wk , u is x-component of velocity
v is y-component of velocity
w is z-component of velocity

Steady Flow

If properties at each point in a flow do not change with time, the flow is called steady.
Mathematically for any property 


=0
t

or


=0   =  ( x, y , z )
t


V  
=0  V = V ( x, y , z )
t

6
ONE- TWO- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL FLOWS

A flow is classified as one-, two-, or three-dimensional depending on the number of space

coordinates required to specify the velocity field.

Example:

  r 2 
u=u 1 − 
max   R   velocity depends on only r, hence the flow is one-dimensional.
 

Velocity changes with x and y coordinates, hence the flow is two dimensional.
Give example about three dimensional flows.

Uniform Flow

To simplify the analysis, sometimes velocity at a cross-section is assumed to be constant. If

velocity at a given cross section is assumed to be uniform, flow is called uniform flow.

at all points at given cross section velocity is same.

7
Timelines, Pathlines, Streaklines, and Streamlines

Timelines, pathlines, streaklines and streamlines provide a visual representation of a flow

field.

Timeline:

If a number of adjacent fluid particles in a flow field are marked at a given instant, they form
a line in the fluid at that instant, this line is called a timeline. Observation of the timeline at a
later instant may provide information about the flow field.

Pathline:

A pathline is the path or trajectory traced out by a moving fluid particle. A pathline may be
obtained by following a fluid particle (i.e. by use of dye) in the flow field.

Streakline:

A line joining the fluid particles that pass through the same point in the flow field is called the
streakline.

8
Streamline:

Streamlines are lines drawn in the flow field so that at given instant they are trangenbt to
direction of flow at every point in the flow field. Streamlines are tangent to the velocity vector
at every point in the flow field.

9
In steady flow, pathlines, streaklines, and streamlines are identical lines in the flow field.

  
Example: A velocity given by V = axi − ayj
, the units of velocity are m/s; and x and y are
given in meters; a=0.1 sec-1.
a) Determine the equation for the streamline passing through the point
(x0, y0, 0)=(2, 8, 0)
b) Determine the velocity of a particle at the point (2, 8, 0)
c) If the particle passing through the point (x0, y0, 0) is marked at time t0=0, determine
the location of the particle at time t=20 sec.
d) What is the velocity of the particle at t=20 sec.
e) Show that the equation of the pathline is the same as the equation of the streamline.

a) Equation of streamline through point (2, 8, 0)

Streamlines are tangent to the flow direction (velocity vector). Hence,
dy v − ay y
= = =−
dx streamline u ax x
separating variables and integrating

dy dx
 = −  ln y= -ln x + C1 or xy=C
y x

10
For the streamline passing through point (2, 8, 0), the constant C
C=28=16

and the equation of the streamline through point (2, 8,0)

xy=16 m2

  
b) The velocity field is V = axi − ayj
  
V = 0.2i − 0.8 j
at point (2, 8, 0) is

x
dx dx t x
c)
up = = ax   =  a dt  ln = at  x = x0 e at
dt x x 0
0 x0

y
dy t y
  =  − a dt  ln = −at  y = y0e − at
y y
0
0 y0

at t=20 sec., x=2e(0.120)=14.8 m.

y=8 e-(0.120)=1.08 m.
 at t=20 sec., particle is at point (14.8, 1.08, 0) m.
d) t=20 sec particle is at point (14.8, 1.08, 0)
    
 velocity at this point
V = 0.2(14.8i − 1.08 j ) = 1.48i − 0.108 j

x = x0 e at and
e) To determine equation of the pathline, we use the parametric equations
y = y0e − at

Solving for eat,

xy = x0y0 = 16 m2 Equation of pathline for particle passing through (x0, y0, 0).

(x0, y0, 0) can also found as xy=16 m2

Streamline passing through the point
 Pathline and the streamline passing through (x0, y0, 0) are the same for steady flow.

11
STRESS FIELD

Forces acting on a fluid element

- Surface forces
- Body forces

Surface forces include all forces acting on the boundaries of a medium through direct contact.
Forces developed without physical contact, and distributed over the volume of the fluid are
called body forces.

Gravitational and electromagnetic forces are body forces.


gd
Gravitational body force acting on a fluid element of volume d is

g
and gravitational body force acting on per unit volume of a fluid element is .

The concept of stress field provides a convenient means to describe forces acting on
boundaries of a fluid medium and transmitted through the medium.

 
Consider an area A around point C in a continuum. The force acting
F acting on A can be

resolved into two components, one normal and the other tangential to the area
n̂
 Fn : normal component
Fn F
Fn : tangential component
C n̂ : normal unit vector

Fn Ft

Normal stress n and shear stress n are defined as

Fn Ft
 n = lim and  n = lim
A →0 An
n
A →0 An
n

Note: subscript, n, indicates that the stress are associated with a particular surface

A through point C.

12
Note that a point C in a continuum different surfaces can be drawn. However, for purpose of
analysis, we usually reference the area to some coordinate system. In rectangular coordinate
system, we might consider the stress acting on planes whose outward drawn normals are in
x,y or z-directions.

y y
Fy xy

• Fx • xx
C C
Fz xz

x x
z z

Force components on element of area Ax Stress components on element of area Ax

Stress components shown in above figure is defined as

 Fn F F
 xx = lim ,  xy = lim y ,  xz = lim z
 A →0  Ax
x  A →0  Ax
x  A →0  Ax
x

We have used a double subscript notation to label the stresses.

i,j i: indicates plane on which stress acts (plane perpendicular to axis i)

j: direction in which stress acts

13
Consideration of an area element, Ay, would lead to the definition of stresses yy, yx, yz, and
use of area element Az would similarly lead to the definitions of zz, zx, zy.
y

yy

yz yx
xy
zy
xz xx
zz zx x

An infinite number of planes can be passed through point C, resulting an infinite number of
stresses associated with that point. Fortunately state of stress at a point can be described
completely by specifying the stresses acting on three mutually perpendicular planes through
the point. Hence, stress at a point is specified by the nine components.

14
 xx  xy  xz 
 
 yx  yy  yz 
 zx  zy  zz 
 

The planes are named in terms of the coordinate axes. The planes are named and denoted as
positive or negative according to the direction of the outward drawn normal to the plane.
Thus, the top plane for example is a positive y-plane and the back plane is a negative z-plane.

It is also necessary to adopt a sign convention for stress. A stress component is considered
positive when the direction of the stress component and the plane on which it acts are both
positive or both negative. In other words, a shear stress on positive y-plane in positive x-
direction or shear stress on negative y-plane in negative x-direction.

Thus, yx=2.4 N/m2 represents a shear stress on positive y-plane in positive x-

direction or shear stress on negative y-plane in negative x-direction.

VISCOSITY

We have learned that a fluid is a substance that undergoes continuous deformation when
subjected to a shear stress. This shear stress is a function of rate of deformation. For many
common the shear stress is proportional to the rate of deformation. The constant of
proportionality, called viscosity, is a fluid property.

To develop the defining equation for viscosity, we consider a flow in x-y plane in which x-
direction velocity varies with y.

15
 du e
u+ δy
dy


Fluid y
element

y x u u
x

Fluid element at time t Fluid element at time t+t

Consider the fluid element in the figure. The top of the fluid element moves faster than the
bottom, so in time fluid element deform.

We measure shear deformation by the angle , which can be related to the fluid velocity.

du  du 
e =  u + y t − ut = yt 
 dy  dy 
 du
also   y = yt
 dy
e
tan    =  e = y 
y 
 du
= Shear deformation rate
t dy

Hence shear stress


 yx  
or
du
 yx  dy

16
Newtonian Fluid

Fluid in which constant of proportionality in above expression is equal to the viscosity called
Newtonian fluid.

Newton’s law of viscosity:

du
 yx =  dy : dynamic viscosity (absolute viscosity)

Unit of 

F 
:
L2  Ft
  : 2
d 1 L
:=
dy t 

g
In metric system poise 
cm. sec
kg
1 poise = 0.1
m sec

N sec
In SI :
m2
kg m
:
sec

Kinematic Viscosity 

  L2   m2 
= ,  ,  
 t   sec 

cm 2
In metric system stoke 
sec
m2
1 poise = 0.0001
sec

17
Non-Newtonian Fluid
Not all fluids follow the Newton’s law of viscosity (stress-strain relation). Such fluids are
called non-Newtonain. Some fluids such as ketchup, are ‘shear-thinning’; that is the
coefficient of resistance decreases with increasing strain rate (it all comes out of the bottle at
once). Others, such as a mixture of sand and water ‘shear-thickening’. Some fluids do not
begin to flow until a finite stress been applied (toothpaste).

In there fluid shear stress-deformation rate (shear strain) relation may be represented by the
power law model,
n
 du 
 yx = k  dy  n: flow behavior index, k: consistency index
 

If the above equation is written in the form

n −1
du du du
 yx = k dy dy
=
dy

n −1
du
then  = k is referred to as the apparent viscosity.
dy

Pseudoplastic Fluid (Shear thinning): apparent viscosity decreases with increasing

deformation rate.

18
Example: polymer solutions, ketchup

Dilatant (Shear thickening): apparent viscosity increases with increasing deformation rate.
Example: sand suspension

Bingham plastic: deformation (flow) does not begin until a finite stress is applied.
Example: toothpaste, drilling muds, clay suspensions

Rheopectic fluid: apparent viscosity increases with time under constant shear stress.

Thixotropic fluid: apparent viscosity decreases with time under constant shear stress.
Example: paints

Viscoelastic fluid: fluid which partially returns to original shape when the applied stress is
released.

Dependency of Viscosity on Temperature

In liquids, viscosity decreases with increasing temperature. This is a result of the fact that the
distance between liquid molecules increases with increasing temperature, and hence cohesion
between molecules decreases.

In gases, resistance to shear force depends on the momentum transfer between molecules with
increasing temperature, motion of the gas molecules increases and hence momentum transfer
increases, as a result viscosity increases.

Expamle: Consider a fluid flowing on an inclined surface. Its velocity profile is

 y  y
2
u ( y ) = U 2 −   . Find shear stress at y=0, Y/2, Y.
 Y Y  

19
 y

Y
U

width, w
g

 x
For Newtonian fluid,

d  y  y 
2
du U  y
 yx =  dy = U dy 2 Y −  Y   =  Y 2 − 2 Y 
 

Shear stresses at various locations y-locations are

U
 yx y =0 = 2 Y
U
 yx y =Y / 2 =  Y
 yx y =Y = 0  as the air above the liquid exerts a neglibile force on the liquid.

DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID MOTIONS

Since there is much overlap in the types of flow fields encountered, there is no universally
accepted classification scheme. One possible classification,

20
Viscous and Inviscid Flows

In an inviscid flow, the fluid viscosity, , ,s assumed to be zero. Fluids with zero viscosity do
not exist; however, there are many problems where an assumption that =0 will simplify the
analysis, and at the same time lead to meaningful results.

All fluids possess viscosity and consequently all flows are viscous.

21
22
In any viscous flow, the flow in direct contact with a solid boundary has the same velocity as
the boundary itself. There is no slip at the boundary.

Laminar and Turbulent Flows

The laminar flow is characterized by smooth motion of fluid particles in laminae or layers.

The turbulent flow is characterized by random, three-dimensional motions of fluid particles

superimposed on the mean motion.

In laminar flow there is no macroscopic mixing of adjacent fluid layer.

23
24
 FLUID STATICS

In this chapter, an expression for the pressure distribution in a stationary body of fluid will be
derived, and the pressure forces acting on submerged surfaces will be studied.

In fluids at rest, there is no relative motion between fluid particles. Hence there is no shear
stress acting on fluid elements. Fluids, which are at rest, are only able to sustain normal
stresses. In fluids undergoing rigid-body motion, a fluid particle retains its identity and there
is no relative motion between the particles. Hence, in fluids undergoing rigid-body motion
only stress component present is the normal stress.

THE BASIC EQUATION OF FLUID STATICS

Our primary objective is to obtain an equation that will enable us to determine the pressure
field within the fluid.

Consider a differential element of mass dm, with sides dx, dy, and dz. The fluid element is
stationary relative to stationary coordinate system.

Two types of force may be acting on the fluid element.

- body force  gravitational force
- surface force  pressure force

z 
g
dz

 p dy   
 p − dxdz( j )  p dy 
y 2   p + dxdz(− j )
 O  y 2 
p

dx
y
x dy

25
In general P=P(x,y,z,t)

The force acting on fluid element shown,

  
dF = dFB + dFs (1)
   
dFB = dmg = dg = dxdydzg (2)

Let the pressure at the center O, of the element be P(x,y,z,t). To determine the pressure at
each of the six forces of the element, we use Taylor series expansion about the point O. The
pressure at the left face of the differential element is

p p  dy  p dy
pL = p + ( y L − y) = p +  −  = p −
y y  2  y 2

Similarly on the right face

p p dy
pR = p + ( y R − y) = p +
y y 2

Pressure forces on the other forces of the element are obtained in the same way. Combining
all such forces gives the net surface force acting on the element

  p    p    p  
dFS =  − dx dydzi +  − dy dxdzj +  − dz dxdyk
 x   y   z 
 p  p  p  
=  − i − j − k dxdydz
 x y z 
 p  p  p  
= − i + j + k dxdydz
 x y z 

The term in parentheses is called the gradient of the pressure is simply pressure gradient and
can be written grad P or P. In rectangular coordinate system,
 p  p  p  
grad P  P   i + j + k 
 x y z 

dFS = − grad P dxdydz = −Pdxdydz (3)

dFS
grad P = P = −
dxdydz

26
Physically the gradient of pressure is negative to the surface force per unit volume due to the
pressure. We note that the level of pressure is not important in evaluating the net pressure
force. Instead, what matters is the rate at which pressure changes occur with distance, the
pressure gradient.

Combining equations (2) and (3) in Eq. (3)

  
dF = dFS + dFB

= (− grad P + g )dxdydz

Or on unit volume base

dF dF
= = − grad P +  g
d  dxdydz
  
For a fluid particle, Newton’s second law of motion gives dF = dm a = da . But for a static

fluid, the acceleration a is zero. Thus,
 
dF = (− grad P + g )dxdydz = 0
or

− grad P + g = 0
body force per unit volume at a point

pressure force per unit volume at a point

Components of this vector equation are

p
− + g x = 0
x
p
− + g y = 0
y
p
− + g z = 0
z
Above equations describe the pressure variation in each of the three coordinate directions in a
static fluid. To simplify further, it is logical to choose a coordinate system such that the
gravity vector is aligned with one of the axes. If the coordinate system is chosen such that z-
axis is directed vertically, then g x = 0, g y = 0 and g z = − g

27
p 
=0 
x 
p 
= 0  pressure is only function of z
y 
p 
= − g 
z 

p dp
 
z dz
dp
= − g
dz
or
dp
= − (4) Basic equation of fluid statics
dz
Note: The pressure does not vary in a horizontal direction. The pressure increases if we go
down and decreases if we go up.

PRESSURE VARIATION IN A CONSTANT-DENSITY FLUID

If the density of the fluid is constant, we can easily integrate Eq.(4) to give
dp
= − g z0 free surface
dz
p z

 dp = −  gdz g
p0 z0

p − p0 = − g (z − z0 )
or z
p − p0 = g (z0 − z )

y
x

For liquids, it is often convenient to take the origin of the coordinate system at the free
surface, and measure the distance as positive downward from the free surface with h
measured positive downward, the
z0 − z = h

p = p0 + gh is called hydrostatic pressure

28
where p0 is the pressure at the free surface of the liquid.

Example: A tank which is exposed to the atmosphere, contains 2 m of water covered with 1
m of oil. The density of water and oil are 1000 kg/m3 and 830 kg/m3, respectively. Find the
pressure at the interface and at the bottom of the tank. Also determine the pressure
distribution at the tank. The atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa.

dp
Basic equation of fluid statics, = − g
dz
For =constant, p = p0 + gh , pressure at any point in the fluid.

N   kg  m
pint = Pa +  o gho = 101325  2  + 830  3 9.81 2 1m
m  m  s 
N 
pint = 109467 .3  2 
m 

N  kg  m
pb = pint +  w ghw = 109467.3  2  + 1000  3  9.81  2  2  m
m  m  s 
N
pb = 129087.3  2 
m 

29
Variation of the pressure in oil is
N   kg  m
p = p atm +  o gh = 101325  2  + 830  3 9.81 2  hm = 101325 + 8142 .3h for 0  h  ho
m  m  s 

Variation of the pressure in water is

N  kg  m
p = pint +  w gh = 109467.3  2  + 1000  3  9.81  2  h  m = 109467.3 + 9810h for 0  h  hw
m  m  s 

Example: Water flows through pipes A and B. Oil, with specific gravity 0.8, is in the upper
portion of the inverted U. Mercury (specific gravity 13.6) is in the bottom of the manometer
bends. Determine the pressure difference, PA-PB.

Find: the pressure difference between A and B, pA-pB = ?

Given:
 H O =1000 kg/m3
2


SG = →  Hg =13.6*1000= 13600 kg/m3
H 2 0

oil =0.8*1000= 800 kg/m3

dp dp
Basic equation = − = − g  dp = − gdh
dz dh
2 2

 dp =  −  gdh
1 1

30
 p2 − p1 = −g (h2 − h1 )

Beginning at point A and applying the above equation between successive points gives
pC − p A = +  H 2O gd1 p E − p D = +  oil gd 3 PB − PF = −  H 2O gd5

p D − pC = −  Hg gd 2 p F − p E = −  Hg gd 4

p A − pB = ( p A − pC ) + ( pC − pD ) + ( pD − pE ) + ( pE − pF ) + ( pF − pB )
= −  H 2O gd1 +  Hg gd 2 − oil gd3 +  Hg gd 4 +  H 2O gd5
= 9.8 ( −1000  25 + 13600  7.5 − 800  20 + 13.6  12.5 + 1000  20 )  10−2
= 25407.90 Pa = 25.405 kPa

31
Pressure Variation in a Varible-Density Fluid

If the density is variable, we must relate it relate to the pressure /or elevation before we can
integrate the equation.

dp
= − g
dz

A common case might involve an ideal gas. In such gases, density can be expressed as a
function of pressure and temperature. Pressure and density of liquids are related by the bulk
compressibility modulus or modulus of elasticity.

dp d
Ev =  dP = Ev
d /  

If the bulk modulus is assumed to be a constant, then the density is only a function of the
pressure.


P
d  
 dp =  Ev 
 p − p 0 = Ev ln
0
 p = p 0 + E v ln
0
P0 0

dp 
= − g  
dz  d z
g

d   2 = −
Ev
dz
dp = E v 0 z0
 
1
−
1
=−
g
(z − z 0 )
0  Ev
1 1 g 1 1 g
− =+ h  = − h
0  Ev  0 Ev
0  g
=1− 0 h
 Ev
1
 p = p 0 + E v ln
0 g
1− h
Ev

32
Example: The pressure, temperature and density of standard atmosphere at the sea level are
101.325 kPa, 15.2 C, and 1.225 kg/m3, respectively. Calculate the percent error introduced
into the elevation of 8 km, by assuming the atmosphere.
a) to be incompressible
b) to be isothermal
c) to be isentropic
d) linearly decreasing temperature with a temperature decrease of -0.0065 K/m.
The actual pressure at an elevation of 8 km is known to be 35.656 kPa. The gas constant of air
is 287 J/kgK.

a) Incompressible air, =constant

dp
= − g  p = p0 −  0 gz
dz
p= 101325 N/m2-(1.225 kg/m3)(9.81 m/s2)(8000)(m)
p= 5187 N/m2

35656 -5187
% Error = 100 = 85.45%
35656

b) Isothermal
p
=
RT

dp
= − g
dz

dp gdz
=−
P RT

33
ln
p
=−
g
(z − z 0 )
p0 RT0

g
− ( z − z0 )
p = p0 e RT0

 9.81(8000 − 0) 
p = 101325 exp −  = 39232 .86 N / m 2
 287 (288 .2) 

39232 − 35656
% Error =  100 = 10.03%
35656
c) Isentropic

p1V1k = p 2V2k
1/ k
1 1 p p0  p 
p1 = p2  =   =   0
1k  2k k  0k  p0 
dp
= − g
dz
1/ k
dp  p 
= −  0 g
dz  P0 
P z0
dp
 p1 / k =  − P01 / k  0 g
P0 z

or
k / k −1
 (k − 1)  0 g 
p = p 0 1 − (z − z 0 )
 kP0 
1.4 / 1.4 −1
 (1.4 − 1)(1.225)(9.81)
P = 101325 1 − (8000 − 0) = 33503 .66 N / m 2
 1.4(101325 ) 

Percent error
35656 − 33503 .66
% Error =  100 = 6.04%
35656

34
 d) Temperature decreases with increasing height
T = T0 + mz, m  0, m = −0.0065 K / m

P P
= = 
RT R(T0 + mz)

dp
= − g
dz
dp pg
=−
dz R(T0 + mz)
P
dp g z dz
P =− 
R z (T0 + mz)
P0 0

g
−
p g T + mz  T + mz  Rm
ln =− ln 0  p = p 0  0 
p0 Rm T0 + mz 0  T0 + mz 0 

9.81
−
 282 .5 + (−0.0065 )(8000 )  287 ( −0.0065 )
p = 101325   ,
 282 .5 + (−0.0065 )(0) 
p = 35587 .36 N / m 2

Percent error
35656 − 35587
% Error = 100 = 0.19%
35656

35
ABSOLUTE AND GAGE PRESSURE

Pressure values must be stated with respect to a reference level. If the reference level is a
vacuum, pressures are termed as absolute. Pressure levels measured with respect to
atmospheric pressure are termed gage pressure.

Pressure level
Pgage

Atmospheric pressure
101.3 kPa (14.696 psia)
Pabsolute At standard sea level
T=288 K
=1.225 kg/m3

pabsolute = pgage + patmosphere

36
 HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON SUBMERGED SURFACES

When a surface is in contact with a fluid, fluid pressure exerts a force on the surface. This
force is distributed over the surface; however, it’s often helpful in engineering
calculations to replace the distributed force by a single resultant. To completely specify
the resultant force we must determine its magnitude, direction and point of application.

We shall consider both plane and curved submerged surfaces.

1. HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON A PLANE SUBMERGED SURFACE

- Magnitude of resultant force


FR = ?

- Point of application
x' = ?, y = ?


Force acting on surface dA
   
dF = − pdA - sign indicates that force dF acts againstthe surface dA

The resultant force acting on the surface is found by summing the contribution of the
infinitesimal forces over the entire area.

Thus,

37
  
FR = −  pdA .................................................................................................................. (1)
A

In order to calculate the integral, both pressure, p, and the element area of dA must be
expressed in terms of the same variables. The basic pressure-height relation for a static fluid
can be written as
dp
= g , h is measured positive downward from the liquid free surface.
dh
p h

 dp =  gdh  p = p0 + gh ........................................................................ (2)

p0 h =0

p0 is the pressure at liquid free surface (h=0)

This expression can be substituted into Eq. 1. Then to perform integration, h and DA should
be expressed in terms of x and/or y. ( h = y sin  ,  = constant). Integration of Eq. 1 gives the
resultant force due to the distributed pressure force.

The point of application of the resultant force must be such that the moment of the resultant
force about any axis is equal to the moment of the distributed force about the same axis.

  
Let r  be the position vector of the point of application of the resultant force FR and r be the
position vector of any point on surface A.

   
r   FR =  r  dF
   
r   FR = −  r  PdA
A

According to coordinate system used,

  
r  = x ı + y j
  
r = x ı + yj
...................................  
FR = − FR k
 
dA = k dA

     
( xı + y j )  (− FR k ) = −  ( x ı + yj )  PdAk
A

38
Evaluating the cross product, we obtain,
   
xFR j + yFR ı =  ( xPj + yP ı )dA
A

Considering the components of this vector equation, we obtain

1
y FR =  ypdA  y  =  ypdA
A FR A
1
x FR =  xpdA  x  =  xpdA
A FR A
 
NOTE : FR = FR =  pdA  Magnitude of FR
A

− Direction of FR is normal to the surface

39
Example: The inclined surface shown, hinged along A, is 5m wide. Determine the resultant

force FR of the water on the inclined surface.

D=2m
water

30 L=4m

w = 5m.

z

dF

 
FR = −  PdA
y
 
dA = wdyk
We now need P as a function of y to perform the integration.

p = p 0 + gh 

  p = p a + ( D + y sin 30 ) g

p 0 = p atm

h = D + y sin 30  
Since we are interested in the force of the water on the gate, then we drop Pa and obtain,
P = ( D + y sin 30 ) g
  L 
 FR = −  pdA = −  g ( D + y sin 30  ) wdyk
0
L
 y2    L2 
= − gw Dy + sin 30   k = − gw DL + sin 30   k
 2 0  2 
 kg  m 
= −999  3  * 9.81 2  * 5m * 2m * 4m +
 
16 m 2 1  
k
m  s   2 2

= −588 k kN  The force is in negative z − direction .

40
Point of application of resultant force
FR y  =  ypdA
A

1 1 L
gw L
y =  ypdA =  ypwdy =  y( D + y sin 30

)dy
FR A FR 0 FR 0
L
gw  D y3  gw  D 2 L3 
y =  y +
2
sin 30   =  L + sin 30  
FR 2 3 0 FR  2 3 
 kg  m
y  = 999  3  * 9.81 2  *
5m
*
 2m
 16 m 2
+  
64 m 3 1 

 
m   s  588 * 10 3 N   2 3 2
y  = 2.22m

1
x =  xpdA
FR A

Since the area element is of constant width, x=w/2

1 w w 1 w
x = 2 pdA =  pdA = = 2.5 m.
FR A 2 FR A 2

Thus,

  
r  = 2.5 ı + 2.22 j m .  line of action of FR

41
ALTERNATIVE APPROACH FOR CALCULATION OF HYDROSTIC FORCE
(ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS)

Note: Origin of the coordinate system is placed at the intersection of the plane
of the gate and the free surface.

Now we will formulate an approach to determine the resultant hydrostatic force and its point
of application. Consider the expressions developed before, i. e.
 
FR = −  pdA
A

Considering the free surface is open to atmosphere, the magnitude of the resultant force can
be written as

42
FR =   ghdA =   gy sin  dA =  g sin   ydA =  g sin  yc A =  ghc A
A A A

NOTE:  ydA = y A is the first moment of the area with respect to the x axis.
A
c

Where yc is the y coordinate of the centroid of the area A measure from the x axis, which
passes through O, and ycsin=hc.

hc is the vertical distance from the fluid surface to the centroid of the area.

Point of Application of the Resultant Force

Expressions for the coordinates of the point of application of the resultant force can be
obtained by equating the moment of the resultant force to the moment of the distributed
pressure force.

FR yR =  ydF =   g sin  y 2 dA
A A

1 1  y 2 dA
yR = 
FR A
 g sin  y 2 dA = 
 g sin  yc A A
 g sin  y 2 dA = A
yc A

 y dA = I
2
x is the second moment of the area (moment of inertia), with respect to an axis
A
formed by the intersection of the plane containing the surface and the free surface (x axis).
Thus, we can write

Ix
yR =
yc A

Using parallel axis theorem

I x = I xc + Ayc2

where Ixc is the second moment of the area with respect to an axis passing through its
centroid and parallel to the x axis. Thus,

I xc
yR = + yc
yc A

43
The x coordinate, xR, for the resultant force can be determined in a similar manner as follows

I xyc
xR = + xc
yc A

where Ixyc is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal coordinate system passing
through the centroid of the area. The point through which the resultant force acts is called the
center of pressure.

44
Example: Solve the previous example using the algebraic equations method.

D=2m
water

30 L=4m

w = 5m

D
a= = 2D
sin 30
L
hc = D + sin 30
2
A = Lw

FR =  ghc A
 L   kg   m  4 
FR =  g  D + sin 30  ( Lw) = 999  3  9.81  2   2 + sin 30   m ( 4  5 ) m2 
 2  m  s  2 
FR = 588011.4  N  = 588  kN 

I xc
yR = + yc
yc A

45
 1 3 1
I xc = ba = wL3
12 12

L
yc = + 2D
2

1
wL3
I xc 12 L 
yR = + yc = +  + 2D 
L  2 
 + 2 D  ( Lw )
yc A
 2 
L  1 4 
2
1 L 42
yR = +  + 2D  = +  + 2(2) 
12  L  2  12  4 + 2(2)   2 
 + 2D   
 2   2 
yR = 6.222  m

I xyc
xR = + xc
yc A

I xyc = 0
xc = 2.5  m  depending on the coordinate system axis
xR = 2.5  m

46
PRESSURE PRISM METHOD

The concept of the pressure prism provides another tool for determining the magnitude and
point of application of the resultant force on a submerged plane surface.

h2 h h1
gh1
gh
x
gh2

dA
y
y


Considering the gage pressure at the free surface is zero, the infinitesimal pressure force, dF ,
acting on the submerged plane surface is,

   
dF = − PdAk = − ghdAk = −d P k

where dA and gh are infinitesimal base arae and imaginary height of the pressure prism,
respectively. Thus, product of dA and gh represents the infinitesimal volume dP of the
pressure prism. After integration, the magnitude of the resultant force may be obtained as,

  
FR = k  dP = − P k P is the volume of the prism.
P

Therefore, the magnitude of the resultant force acting on a submerged plane surface is equal
to the volume of the pressure prism.

Point of application of the resultant force,

47
 1 1 1
x =  xPdA =  xghdA =  xd = X G
FR A P A P P

and
1 1 1
y =  yPdA =  yghdA =  yd = YG
FR A P A P P

where XG and YG are the coordinates of the centroid of the pressure prism.

Example: solve the previous example using the pressure prism method.

D+Lsin
D=2m
water Dg

g(D+Lsin30)

30 L=4m

 
FR = − P k
  g ( D + L sin 30) + gD  
FR = −  wL  k
 2
  L sin 30  
FR = − gwL D + k
 2 

FR = −588 kN

Point of application of the resultant force

-The gate is symmetrical about its centroid axis.
w
 x = X G = = 2.5 m
2

48
The y-coordinate of the point of application of the resultant force can be found considering
the triangular pressure prisms. Let y1 be the centroid of the rectangular pressure prism and y2
be the centroid of the triangular pressure prism.
 y = YG
yFR = y1FR + y2 FR
1 2

L  2  gL w sin 30

2
yP =  (gDwL) +  L 
2 3  2
y = 2.22 m

49
HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON CURVED SUBMERGED SURFACES

Consider the infinitesimal curved surface shown in

figure. The hydrostatic force on an infinitesimal

element of a curved surface, dA , acts normal to the
surface. However, the differential pressure force on
each element of the surface acts in a different
direction because of the surface curvature.

Usually, to sum a series of force vetors acting in different directions, we sum the components
of the vectors relative to a convenient system.


The pressure force acting on area element dA is
 
dF = − pdA
The resultant force is
 
FR = −  pdA
A

FR can be written as
   
FR = ı FR + j FR + k FR
x y z


where FR , FR and FR are components of FR in x,y and z directions.
x y z

To evaluate the component of the force in a given direction, we take the dot product of the
force with the unit vector in the given direction. For example, taking the dot product of each

side of the above equation with unit vector ı gives
   
FR  ı = −  pdA  ı

FR = −  pdAx
x

In general, magnitude of the component of the resultant force in the l direction is given by
FR =
l  pdAl
Al

50
where dAl is the projection of the area element dA on a plane perpendicular to l-direction.

The line of action of each component of the resultant force is found by recognizing that the
moment of the resultant force component about a given axis must be equal to the moment of
the corresponding distributed force component about the same axis.

Because we are dealing with a curved surface, the lines of action of the components of the
resultant force will not necessarily coincide; the complete resultant may not be expressed as a
single force.

Example: An open tank which is shown in the figure is filled with an incompressible fluid of
density, . Determine the magnitudes and lines of action of the vertical and horizontal
components of the resultant pressure force on the curved part of the tank bottom.

NOTE: the width of the tank is w.

FIND: FR = ?, FR = ?
H V

51
 
Consider the area element dA . The resultant force acting on this area element is
 
FR = −  pdA, dA = dRw, p = p 0 + gh
A
p 0 = p atm
p = ( L − R sin  ) g

Horizontal component of this force is

dFR = dFR cos
H

Vertical component is

dFR = dFR cos( −  )
V
2
 /2  /2
R sin 2
 FR = − gwR  ( L − R sin  ) cosd = − gwR  ( L cos − )d
H
0 0 2
 /2
 R cos 2   R R  R
= − gwR L sin  −  = − gwR L − −  = − gwR L − 
 4 0  4 4  2

Similarly, vertical component of the resultant force

52
  /2
   
FR = − gwR  ( L − R sin  ) cos −  d Note : cos −   = sin 
V
0 2  2 
 /2
1 − cos 2
= − gwR  ( L sin  − R sin 2  )d sin 2  =
0 2
 /2
 R R 
= − gwR   L sin  − 2 + 2 cos 2  d
0  
 /2
 R R 
= − gwR− L cos +  + sin 2 
 2 4 0
 R 
= − gwR L cos − 
 4

Note: Horizontal and vertical components of the resultant pressure force are both negative, so
that they are acting in a direction opposite to x and y axis, respectively.

Line of action of vertical component

1 
x =  xpdA cos( 2 −  ) Note : x = R cos
FR V A
 /2
g 
=
FR  ( R cos )( L − R sin  ) x cos( 2 −  ) Rd
V 0

gwR  / 2
=  ( L sin  cos − R sin  cos )d
2
FR V 0
 /2
gwR  L sin 2  R sin 3  
= ( − 
FR V
2 3 0
R( L / 2 − L / 3)
=
( L − R / 4)

53
 1
y =  ypdA cos
FR H A

gw  / 2
=
FR  ( R sin  )( L − R sin  ) cosd
H 0

gwR  / 2
=  ( L sin  cos − R sin  cos )d
2
FR H 0
 /2
gwR  L sin 2  R sin 3  
= ( − 
FR  V
2 3 0
R( L / 2 − L / 3)
=
( L − R / 2)

54
ALTERNATIVE APPROACH FOR CALCULATION OF RESULTANT
FORCE ACTING ON CURVED SURFACES
The resultant fluid force acting on a curved submerged surface can be determined by
integration as in the above example. This is generally a rather tedious process, and no simple
general formulas can be developed. As an alternative approach we will consider the
equilibrium of the fluid volume enclosed by the curved surface of interest and the
horizontal and vertical projections of this surface.

Consider the section BC shown in the figure above. This section has a unit length
perpendicular to the plane of the paper.

- We first isolate a volume of fluid that is bounded by the surface of interest, in this
instance section BC, and the horizontal plane surface AB and the vertical plane surface
AC.
- Draw the free-body diagram for this volume as shown in Fig. c.
- The magnitude and location of forces F1 and F2 can be determined from the
relationships for planar surfaces.
- The weight, W, is simply weight of the fluid in the enclosed volume.
- Forces FH and FV represent the components of the force that the tank exerts on the
fluid.
- From the force balance, we can obtain FH and FV as follow:

FH = F2 FV = F1 + W
The resultant force of the fluid acting on the curved surface BC is equal and opposite in
direction to that obtained from the free-body diagram.

Example: Solve the previous example using the second method.

55
Solution:

Draw the free body diagram of the isolated liquid.

From the free-body diagram

FRH = F2 , FRV = F1 + W
FRH = − FRH , FRV = − FRV
W: weight of the isolated liquid
F1: the hydrostatic force acting on surface AB
F2: the hydrostatic force acting on surface BC
FRV : the vertical component of the force exerted

by curved surface AC.

FRH : the horizontal component of the force

exerted by curved surface AC.

 R  R
FRH = F2 = pc ABC =  ghc ABC =  g  L −  Rw =  gwR  L − 
 2  2

 1 
FRV = F1 + W = pc AAB +  g =  ghc AAB +  g  R 2 w −  R 2 w 
 4 
 1 
=  g ( L − R ) Rw +  gRw  R −  R 
 4 
 1   R
=  gRw  L − R + R −  R  =  gRw  L − 
 4   4 

 R
 FRH = − FRH = −  gwR  L − 
 2

56
  R
FRV = − FRV = −  gRw  L − 
 4 
1  
x =
FRV  xpdA cos( 2 −  ) 
A 
 same as calculated in the previous example.
1 
y =
FRH  ypdA cos  
A 

57
BUOYANCY

When a body is either fully or partially submerged in a fluid, a net force called the buoyant
force acts on the body. This force is caused by the difference the pressure on the upper and
lower surface of body. Consider the object shown in the figure immersed in a static fluid. We
want to calculate the net vertical force that pressure exerts on the body.

dFz = ( p0 + gh2 )dA − ( p0 + gh1 )dA = g (h2 − h1 )dA = gd


d

Thus the net vertical force on the body is

Fz =  dFz =  gd = g



where  is the volume of the object.

Thus the net vertical pressure force, or buoyancy force, equals the force of gravity on the
liquid displaced by the object. This relation was reportedly used by Archimedes in 220 B.C.,
it is often called ‘Archimedes Principle’.

The line of action of the buoyancy force may be found using the methods that used in the
previous section.

1 1
XB =
FB  xdF =
g 
xd

58
Note: The line of action of the buoyant force passes through the centroid of the displaced
volume. This centroid is called the center of buoyancy.

Stability of Submerged and Floating Bodies

The location of the line of action of the buoyancy force and the line of action of the force due
to gravity determines the stability.

STABILITY

The location of the line of action of the buoyancy force and the line of action of the force due
to gravity determines the stability.

Stability of a Completely Immersed Body

FB
FB
C C W W

CG CG CG CG

W W C C
FB FB

Restoring overturning
couple couple
Stable Unstable
Center of gravity below centroid Center of gravity above centroid

59
 W W

CG CG
Barge C C’ Restoring
couple
FB FB

Stable

W W

CG overturning
CG
couple

C: centroid of original displaced

volume
Slender C C’ C’: centroid of new displaced
Body
FB FB volume

Unstable

60
FLUIDS IN RIGID BODY MOTION

A fluid in rigid body motion moves without deformation as though it were a solid body. Since
there is no deformation, there can be no shear stress. Consequently, the only surface stress on
each element of fluid is that due to pressure. Hence, as in the case of static fluid, the force
acting on a fluid element in rigid body motion is

dF = (− grad p + g )d
or force on a fluid element of unit volume

dF
= − grad p + g
d
Using Newton’s second law, we can write
 
dF = adm


− grad p + g = a
The physical significance f each term in this equation is


− grad p + g = a
 pressure force  body force  mass  acceleration 
       
 per unit volume +  per unit volume =  per unit volume  of fluid 
at a po int  at a po int     particle 
       

From the above vector equation, following scalar equations can be written

p
− + g x = ax
x
p
− + g y = a y
y
p
− + g z = az
z

Example: An open tank is used to transport liquid. What should be the maximum height of
the liquid in tank to be sure that it will not spill over during the trip?

61
 d=?
Basic equation

− grad P + g = a
p 
=0 
ay = 0 gz = 0  z 
 p 
az = 0 gx = 0   = − ax   p = p( x, y )
x
g y = − g  
p 
= − g 
y 
Then the total change in pressure with change in x and y with dx and dy, can be written as
p p
dx + dy = 0
x y
Since the free surface is open to atmosphere, the pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure and
it is constant. Thus
dp = 0
p p
dx + dy = 0
x y
dy  a
− ax dx − gdy = 0   =− x  free surface is a straight line
dx  free surface g

From the figure

62
 e
tan  =
b
2
b 
e= tan  
2 
dy  b ax
tan  = −   e =
dx  2 g
dy a 
=− x 
dx g 

d = H −e
b ax
d=H−  maximum allowable liquid height
2 g

63
FLUID ROTATING ABOUT A VERTICAL AXIS

A cylindrical container, partially filled with liquid, is rotated at a constant angular velocity ,
about its axis.

After a short time there is no relative motion; the liquid rotates with the cylinder as if the
system were a rigid body. Determine the shape of the free surface.

Since there is a circumferential symmetry, the pressure is not

function of . Then,
p=p(r,z)

p  p 
 dp =  dr +  dz (1)
r  z z r

In order to obtain pressure distribution, we need to find

p  p 
expression for  and  . This can be obtained by writing Newton’s second law in z and
r  z z r

r directions (or writing equation − grad p + g = a in cylindrical coordinate system).

From equation
p  
−  + g z = az 
z r
 p 
gz = −g   −  = − g (2)
 z r
az = 0



Similarly,
p 
− + g r = ar 
r
 p
gr = 0  =  2 r (3)
 r
ar = − 2 r 


64
The same expression can also be obtained by applying Newton’s second law in the r-direction
to a suitable differential element.

The pressure at the center of the element is P. Using a Taylor series expansion, we express
forces acting in the r plane on the element as shown in the figure.

Writing Newton’s second law in the r-direction, we have

 dFr •= ar dm
= ar d
= − 2 rd
= − 2 rrddrdz
From the figure
 p dr  dr   p dr  dr  d
 dFr =  p − r  r − ddz −  p +  r + ddz + 2 pdrdz sin
r 2 
 2  2  2 2
d d
Expanding and canceling like terms, recognizing sin = gives
2 2

 dr p dr p dr dr p dr p  dr 
2 

 dFr = ddz pr − 2 − r r 2 + r 2 − pr − p 2 − r r 2 − r  2  + pdr

   

 p 
 dFr = ddz− r r dr 
 
Then

65
 p
−r drddz = − 2rrddrdz
r
p
= − 2r (3)
r

Substituting (2) and (3) into (1), we get

dp =  2rdr − gdz

To obtain the pressure difference between a reference point (r1,z1), where the pressure is P1,
and arbitrary point (r,z), where the pressure is P, we must integrate

p r p

 dp =   rdr −  gdz
2

p1 r1 p1

 2
( p − p1 ) = (r 2 − r12 ) − g ( z − z1 )
2

Taking the reference point on the cylinder axis at the free surface gives
p1 = patm , r1 = 0, z1 = h1

Then
 2r 2
p − patm = − g ( z − h1 )
2
Since the free surface is a surface of constant pressure (p=patm), the equation of the free
surface is given by
 2r 2 (r )2
0= − g ( z − h1 )  z = h1 +  Equation of the free surface.
2 2g
(parabola with vertex on the axis at z = h1 )
We can solve for the height h1 in terms of the original height ho and R. To do this, we use the
fact that the volume of the fluid must remain constant.

with no rotation  = R 2 h0

66
 R rz R
with rotation  =   2rdzdr =  2rzdr
0 0 0

R
  2 r 2 
 =  2  h1 + rdr
0  2 g 
R
 r 2  2r 4   2  2R4 
 = 2 h1 +  =  h1R + 
 2 8g 0  4g 

Then equating these two expression for volume,

  2 R4 
R 2h0 =  h1R 2 + 
 4g 

(R) 2
 h1 = h0 −
4g
Finally,
(R) 2 (r ) 2
z = h0 − −
4g 2g

(R) 2  1  r 2 
z = h0 −  −    Equation of the free surface
2g  2  R  

67
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS FOR FLOW ANALYSIS

We covered methods of analysis of nonflowing fluids in the previous chapter. In this chapter,
we develop the fundamental concepts of flow analysis, including way to describe fluid flow,
natural laws that govern fluid flow, different approaches to formulating mathematical models
of fluid flow, and methods that engineers use to flow problems.

The Fundamental Laws

Experience have shown that all fluid motion analysis must be consistent with the following
fundamental laws of nature.

• The law of conservation of mass. Mass can be neither created nor destroyed. It can
only be transported or stored.
• Newton’s three law of motion:
1. A mass remains in a state of equilibrium, that is, at rest or moving at constant
velocity, unless acted on by unbalanced force.
2. The rate of change of momentum of mass is equal to the net force acting on the
mass.
3. Any force action has an equal (in magnitude) and opposite (in direction) force
reaction.
• The first law of thermodynamics (law of conservation of energy) Energy, like mass,
can be neither created nor destroyed. Energy can be transported, changed in form, or
stored.
• The second law of thermodynamics: The entropy of the universe must increase or, in
the ideal case, remain constant in all natural processes.
• The state of postulate (law of property relations): The various properties of a fluid are
related. If a certain minimum number (usually two) of fluid’s properties are specified,
the remainder of the properties can be determined.

NOTE: These laws apply to all flows. They do not depend on the nature of the fluid,
the geometry of the boundaries, or anything else. As far as we know, they have always

68
 been true and will continue to be true unless they are suspended by the creator of the
universe. Hence, we can firmly base analysis of all flows on these laws.

Constitutive Relations

In addition to these universal laws, several less fundamental laws, such as Newton’s law of
viscosity, Fourier’s law of conduction, are needed to solve flow problems.

These laws are true for some fluids.

Mathematical Formulation

The fundamental laws are the basis of our understanding of fluid motion. However, besides
understanding, an engineer needs to know qualitatively the velocity, and the pressure to
calculate the effects of the fluid on surfaces that it contacts, such as force exerted by the fluid
on a surface, pressure drop in a pipe flow, etc.

To obtain predictive capability, the fundamental laws must be expressed mathematically and
they must be solved to predict velocity or pressure.

To formulate the fundamental laws, we choose both a point of view and a mathematical
method.

System versus Control Volume

We may apply the fundamental laws to either a system or a control volume.

System : a specific fluid mass selected for analysis.

Control Volume : a specific region of space selected for analysis.

System and control volume may be either infinitesimally small or finite.

69
The system of point of view is related to a Lagrangian description of flow. Its advantages is
that all the fundamental laws may be expressed directly in terms of a specific collection of
mass.

Control volume point of view is related to an Eulerian description of flow. Its advantage is
that control volumes are easier to use for problem solution.

Thus we adopt the system point of view to formulate the fundamental laws, but use the
control volume point of view to apply them to problems. Fortunately, we can formally
connect the two points view by purely mathematical relationships.

Differential versus Integral Formulation

We must now consider the level of detail of the resulting flow analysis. We must choose
between a detailed point by point description and a global or lumped description.

When a point by point (local) description is desired, fundamental laws are applied to an
infinitesimal control volume. The result will be a set of differential equations with the fluid
velocity and pressure as dependent variables and the location (x, y, z) and time as independent
variables. Solution of these differential equations, together with boundary conditions, will be
two function V(x, y, z, t), and P(x, y, z, t) that can tell us velocity the velocity and pressure at
every point.

70
When global information such as flow rate, force and temperature change between inlet and
outlet is desired, the fundamental laws are applied to a finite control volume.

The result will be a set of integral equations.

71
BASIC LAWS FOR A SYSTEM

Conservation of Mass

System
dM
=0
dt system

where
M sys =  dm =  d
m ass  sys
( sys )

Newton’s Second Law


 dP 
F= P : linear momentum
dt sys
  
P=  dm =
V
mass
 d
 sys
V
( sys )

The First Law of Thermodynamics

Q − W = dE
in the rate form
dE
Q − W =
dt sys

The total energy of the system is given by

Esys =  edm =  ed
mass  sys
( sys )

v2
e=u+ + gz
2
The Second Law of Thermodynamics

If an amount of heat Q is transferred to a system at temperature T, the second law of

thermodynamics states that the change in entropy ds of the system is given by

72
 Q
ds 
T
on the rate basis
ds 1
 Q
dt sys T

Total entropy of the system is

S sys =  sdm =  sd

m ass 
( sys ) ( sys )

RELATION OF SYSTEM DERIVATIVES TO THE CONTROL VOLUME

FORMULATION

The above equations involve the time derivative of an extensive property of the system (mass,
momentum, energy, entropy). All the above equations can be expressed in terms of a general
intensive property . Thus

N sys = dm = d

m ass 
( sys ) ( sys )

Comparing this with the above equations, we see that when

N=M then =1 N=E then =e

 
N= P then = V N=S then =s

Consider a system and control volume whose boundaries coincide at t0.

73
 dN
Objective: To relate the to the time variations of this property (N) associated with
dt system

the control volume.

From the definition of a derivative,

dN N s )t 0 + t − N s )t 0
 lim (1)
dt system
t → 0 t

At t+t, the system occupies regions II and III, at t0, the system and the control volume
coincide, we can write

N s )t 0 = (NC )t 0 =  d (2)

C

N s )t 0 + t = (N II + N III )t 0 + t = (NC − N I + N III )t 0 + t

     
N s )t 0 + t =   d −  d +   d (3)
C t 0 + t  I  t 0 + t  III  t 0 + t

Substituting these expressions şnto the definition of the system derivative

       
  d −   d +   d −   d
dN   C  t 0 + t  I  t 0 + t  III  t 0 + t C t0
 = lim
dt  system t → 0 t

or

74
        
 d −  d  d  d
dN  C  t 0 + t C t0  III  t 0 + t I  t 0 + t
 = lim + lim − lim (4)
dt  system 
t → 0
t   t →0
 t 
   t →0
  t 
 
1 2 3

Term 1 in Eq. 4 simplifies to

   
 d −  d
C  t 0 + t C t0 
lim = d (5)
t → 0 t t
 
 d
 III  t 0 + t N III )t 0 + t
lim = lim
t → 0 t t → 0 t

To evaluate N III )t0 + t let us look at an enlarged view of a typical subregion of region III.

  
N III )t 0 + t =  d   
 III  t 0 + t   N )
III t 0 + t =    l cosdA
 CS III  t 0 + t
d = l cosdA 

Note: the angle  will always be less than  over the entire area of the control surface
2
bounding region III.

In the above expression, l is the distance travelled by a particle on the system surface during
the interval t along the streamline that existed at t0.

75
  
 d
 III  t 0 + t l
lim = lim   cosdA
t → 0 t t → 0
CS III
t

l  
Note: lim =V and dA = dA
t →0 t

Hence
 
 d
 III  t 0 + t  
lim =  V cos dA (6)
t → 0 t CS III

The term 3 in Eq. 4 simplifies to

 
 d
I  t 0 + t N I )t 0 + t
− lim = lim
t → 0 t t → 0 t

To evaluate N I )t0 + t , look at an enlarged view of a typical subregion

d = l (− cos )dA

 
 d l cosdA
I  t0 +t
− lim = − lim
CS I
t →0 t t →0 t (7)
l  
= + lim   cosdA = +  V cos dA
t →0
CS I
t CS I

76
Substituting Eqs. (5),(6) and (7) into (4)

dN      
 = d +  V cos dA +  V cos dA
dt  sys t C CS III CS I

CS = CSI + CSIII
Hence we can write,
dN    
 = d +  V cos dA
dt  sys t C CS

   
Recognizing that V cos dA = V  dA

dN    
 = d + V  dA
dt  sys t C CS

It is important to recall that in deriving the above equation, the limiting process (taking the
limit as t→0) ensured that the relation is valid at the instant when the system and control
volume coincide.

dN 
 : the total rate of change of any arbitrary extensive property of the system.
dt  sys


t C
d : the time rate of change of the arbitrary extensive property N within the

control volume
 
  dA

CS
V : the net rate of flux of the extensive property N through the control surface.

Evaluating the scalar product

77
CONSERVATION OF MASS (Continuity Equation)

Combining the law of conservation of mass with the transport theorem yields one of the most
useful equations in all fluid mechanics: the continuity equation.

Recall that conservation of mass states simply that the mass of a system is constant,
dM 
 = 0,
dt  sys
M sys =  d
SYS

The system and control volume formulation of the conservation of mass, we set
N=M then =1
with this substitution, we obtain
dM    
 = 
dt  sys t C
d +  V  dA = 0
CS

  
t C   dA = 0 Continuity equation for a finite control volume
d + V
CS


t C
d rate of change of mass within the control volume

 
  dA net rate of flus through the control surface
CS
 V


NOTE: V is the velocity measured relative to the control surface. The sign of the dot product
   
V  dA depends on the direction of velocity vector V , relative to the area vector dA .
 
V  dA is positive where flow is out through the control surface, negative where flow is in
through the control surface, and zero where flow is tangent to surface.

78
Special Cases

1. Incompressible Flow:
For incompressible flow,  = constant
  
  d +   V  dA = 0
t C CS

    
 +   V  dA = 0    dA = 0
V
t CS CS

 = constant

 = 0  
t  = constant

 
 V  dA is called the volume flow rate of flow over a section of the control surface.
2. Steady Flow

=0
t
Hence the continuity equatşon becomes,
 
  dA = 0 , [flow could be compressible]
 V
CS

3. Uniform Flow

The velocity is constant across the entire area at a section when density is also constant at a
section, then at section n
   
 V
An
 dA =  nV n  An =   nVn An

Example:
A constant density fluid flows in the converging, two-dimensional channel shown in the
figure. The width perpendicular to the paper is quite large compared to the channel height.
The velocity in the z-direction is zero. The channel half height y and the fluid velocity in x-
direction are given by

 x   y  
2
y0
y= and u = u0 1 +  1 −   
1+ x  l    Y  
l
where u0=1.0 m/s

79
Show that the flow field satisfies the continuity equation.

General continuity equation

  
t C   dA = 0
d + V
CS


d = 0  = constant
t C
  ?

 V  dA = 0
CS

For the control volume shown in the figure, along the walls of the channel, u=v=0, hence

      ?

 V  dA =  V  dA +  V  dA = 0
CS Ain Aout
?
= −  udA +  udA = 0
Ain Aout

 x    y    x    y  
+Y0 2 +Yl 2
?
−  u0 1 +  1 −    wdy +  u0 1 +  1 −    wdy = 0
−Y0  l    Y0   −Yl  l    Yl  
+ Y0 + Yl
 y3   y3  ?
− wu0  y − 2  + 2wu0  y − 2  = 0
 3Y0  −Y
0
 3Yl  −Y
l

4wu0Y0 8wu0Yl ? 
− + =0  4 4 ?
3 3   − w + w=0
3 3
u0 = 1 m / s, Y0 = 1 m, Yl = 0.5 m

0=0

80
Flow satisfies the continuity equation.

Example:
Water is being added to a storage tank at the rate of 2000 lt/min. At the same time, water
flows through a 5 cm inside diameter pipe with an average velocity of 18 m/s. The storage
tank has an inside diameter of 300 cm. Find the rate at which the water level rises or falls.

GIVEN
in flow rate 2000 lt/min.
storage tank diameter 300 cm
discharge pipe diameter 5 cm
discharge velocity 18 m/s
Basic Equation
Continuity equation
  
 d +  V  dA = 0
t C CS

d = 0  = constant
t C

Continuity equation,

t C
 d  +  V  dA = 0
CS


t Ain
 + V  dA +  V  dA = 0
Aout

 
 + (− VAin ) + (+ VAout ) = 0  d
t   ( 1 + AT h ) − Qin + (VA )out = 0
Qin
 dt
 = 1 + 2 = 1 + AT h 

= Qin − (VA)out
dh
AT
dt

81
 2000 10−3  m3   m   (0.05)  2 
2

 s  − 18  s  m 
dh Qin − (VA)out 60   4
= =
dt AT  2 2
3 m 
4  
dh m
= −2.8 10−4  
dt s

82
MOMENTUM EQUATION FOR INERTIAL CONTROL VOLUME

In this section we will develop mathematical formulation of Newton’s Second Law for an
inertial control volume.

Inertial control volume is the control volumethat is not accelerating relative to a stationary
frame of reference (inertial control volume).

Recall that Newton’s second law for a system moving relative to an inertial coordinate system
was

 dP    
F=  where P=  Vd linear mometum, F total resultant force
dt  sys  sys

  
F = FS + FB

Using the relation between the system and control volume formulations

dN    
dt  sys t C   dA
 =  d +  V
CS

 
and setting N = P and  = V , we obtain


dP      
 =   V  dA
dt  sys t C
V d + V
CS

Note:

dP  
 =F
dt  sys
)
on sys

Since, in deriving the relation between the system and control volume formulation, the system

and control volume coincided at to

 
F )
on sys =F )
on control volume

83
Hence, we can write,

       
  V  dA
t C
F = FS + FB = V d + V MOMETUM EQUATION
CS

This equation states that the sum of all forces (surface and body forces) acting on a
nonaccelerating control volume is equal to the sum of the rate of the change of momentum
inside the control volume and the net rate of efflux of momentum through the control surface.

 
FS =  − p dA surface force due to pressure
A
  
FB =   g dA body force due to pressure
C


Sometimes surface force FS may also include shear force.

The momentum equation is a vector equation. From this vector equation, a scalar component
in each direction can be written, i.e.

     
Fx = FS x + FBx =  ud +  uV  dA
t C CS

     
 
t C   dA
Fy = FS y + FBy = v d + v V
CS

     
Fz = FS z + FBz =  wd +  wV  dA
t C CS

The momentum equation is usually used to calculate force interactions between a moving
fluid and solid objects in contact with it.

84
Example:
Water from a stationary nozzle strikes a flat plate as shown. The velocity of the water leaving
the nozzle is 15 m/sec. The nozzle area is 0.01 m2. Assuming the water is directed normal to
the plate; determine the horizontal force on the support.

FIND: Horizontal force Kx = ?

Since the force interaction between the fluid and the solid object is the point of interest, we
have to use momentum equation.

We must choose a suitable control volume. A number of possible choices are,

Regardless of our choice of control volume, the result should be the same.

I. Use CI

Momentum equation in x-direction

     
 
t C 
Fx = FS x + FBx = u d + u V  dA
 CS
=0
Steady flow

FBx = 0 No body force in x-direction

85

FS x = p A A − p A A + Rx

FS x =  pA A −  pA A + Rx

pressure force pressure force forceonthesup port
on left face on right face on CV ( assumed positive)

NOTE: Left and right faces of the control volume are equal.


FS x = Rx

and
   
Rx =  uV  dA =  uV  dA [No mass crossing top and bottom surfaces, u=0]
CS A1
   
Rx =  u− V1dA {at 1 V  dA = − V1dA , since direction of V1 and dA1 are 180 apart.}
A1

Rx = −u1 V1 A1 {properties uniform over A1}

m  kg  m
Rx = −15  999  3   15   0.01m
 sec  m   sec 
Rx = −2.25 kN  {Rx acts opposite to positive direction}

Force on the support K x = − Rx = 2.25 kN 

II. Use C II

Left and right face areas of the control volume are equal and hence this leads to the equation
directly for C I

III. Use C II

Left and right face areas of the control volume are equal.

86
  
FS x =  uV  dA
CS

for CVII
  
FS x = p A A + Rx =  uV  dA =  u− V1dA = −2.25 kN 
A1 A1

p A A + Rx = −2.25 kN 
Rx = − p A A − 2.25 kN 
and
K x = − Rx = p A A + 2.25 kN 

To determine the net force on the plate, we need take into account pressure (atmospheric)
force of the right face of the plate.

Fnet = K x − p A A
Fnet = p A A + 2.25 − p A A
Fnet = 2.25 kN 

87
Example: A metal container, which has a height of 0.6m and an inside cross-sectional area of
0.1 m2, is placed on a scale. Water flows into the tank at a velocity of 6 m/s through an
opening at the top with a cross-sectional area of 0.01 m2, flows out the openings on the side
walls with equal cross-sectional areas. Under steady flow conditions, the height of the water
in the tank is 0.5 m. The pressure is atmospheric across all openings, and the container weighs
50 N when it is empty. If the frictional effects are negligible then determine the reading on the
scale.

AT = 0.1 m2
V1 = 6 m/s
A1 = 0.01 m2
A2 = A3
h = 0.5 m

Ky = ?

The force exerting on the control volume in the y-direction may be found by applying the
momentum equation in y-direction.

t C
FS y + FBy = v  d  +  v V  dA
CS
=0
Steady flow

FS y + FBy =  vV  dA +  v V  dA +  v V  dA (1)

A1 A2 =0 A3 =0

FBy = −Ww − Wt = −  ghA − Wt

Ww :weight of water (2)
Wt :weight of the tank

FS y = Ry − patm A (3)

88
Substituting (2) and (3) into (1)
Ry − patm A − Wt −  ghA = v1 − V1 A1 

v1 = -6 m/s


Ry = v1 − V1 A1  + patm A + Wt +  ghA force exerted by scale on the control volume.

To find the net force acting on scale, consider the free body diagram of the scale

Ry

K y = − Ry + patm A
Patm K y = −v1− v1 A1 + patm A + Wt + ghA + patm A

K y = −(− 6)− 1000  6  0.01 + 50 + 1000  9.81 0.5  0.1

Ky

K y = −900.5 N

Note: If no water was flowing in, the reading of the scale would be,
K y = −50 N + 1000  9.81 0.5  0.1

K y = −540.5 N

89
Example: A shallow circular dish has a sharp-edged orifice at its center. A water jet of speed
V strikes the dish concentrically. If the jet issuing from the orifice and from the surface of the
dish also has speed V, evaluate the external force needed to hold the dish in place for
V = 5 m/s, D=100 mm and d=20 mm.

Assumptions:
- No body force in x-direction
- Steady flow
- Uniform flow in all sections
- No pressure force
- V1 = V2 = V3

Momentum equation in x-direction.


t C
FS x + FBx = u  d  +  u V  dA
=0 CS
Body force =0
Steady flow

Rx = u1 − V1 A1  + u2  V2 A2  + u3  V3 A3 

 D2 d2
where u1 = V , u2 = V , u3 = −V sin  , A1 = , A2 = , A3 = A1 − A2
4 4
 D2 d2 
Rx = − V 2
4
+ V 2
4
− V 2 ( sin  )
4
(D 2
− d2)


Rx = V 2  − D 2 + d 2 − sin  ( D 2 − d 2 ) 
4

Rx = V 2 (1 + sin  ) ( d 2 − D 2 )
4

Rx = ( 999 ) ( 52 ) (1 + sin 45) ( 0.022 − 0.12 )
4
Rx = −321.45 N  Force exerted by dish on CV

Force acting on dish K x = − Rx = 321.45 N

Force to hold the dish in place = − K x = −321.45 N

90
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Bernoulli’s equation may be developed as a special form of the momentum or energy

equation.

Here, we will develop it as special case of momentum equation. Consider a steady

incompressible flow without friction. Apply the control volume equation to the control
volume shown.

The control volume chosen is fixed in space and bounded by flow streamlines, and it is thus
an element of a stream tube. The length of the control volume is ds.

Because the control volume is bounded by streamlines, the flow across bounding surfaces
occurs at the end sections.

The properties at outlet section are assumed to increase by a differential amount.

Continuity Equation

  
 d +  V  dA = 0
t C CS


d = 0Steady flow 
t C

− Vs A +  (Vs + dVs )( A + dA) = 0

91
or
Vs A =  (Vs + dVs )( A + dA)
......................................................................................... (1)

s-component of the momentum equation

  
 
t C  s  dA
FS s + FB s = u s d + u V
CS ........................................................................... (2)

 dp 
FS s = pA − ( p + dp)( A + dA) +  p + (dA)
 2
 
pressureforce acting
on theboundingstream
surfaceof the control
volume

Note: No friction flow, Rs = 0

Then,
1
FS s = − Adp − dpdA
2
..................................................................................................... (3)

The body force component in s-direction is,

 dA 
FB s = − g s d =  (− g sin  ) A + ds
 2 

Note:
sin  ds = dz

Therefore,
 dA 
FB s = − g  A + dz
 2 
................................................................................................... (4)

The momentum flux will be

 
 u V  dA = Vs − Vs A + (Vs + dVs ) (Vs + dVs )( A + dA)
CS
s

from continuity

92
From continuity,
Vs A =  (Vs + dVs )( A + dA)

Hence
 
 s  dA = Vs (− Vs A) + (Vs + dVs )(Vs A) = Vs AdVs .............................................. (5)
u V
CS

Substituing Eq. (3), (4), and (5) into (2)

1 1
− Adp − dpdA − gAdz − gdAdz = Vs AdVs
2 
 2 
 
0 0

Dividing by A and noting that products of differentials are negligible compared to the
remaining terms, we obtain

dp
− − gdz = Vs dVs


or

dp V 2 
− − gdz = d  s 
  2 

or

dp V 2 
+ d  s  + gdz = 0
  2 

For incompressible flow ( = constant), this equation can be integrated to obtain

p Vs2
+ + gz = constant
 2

93
Dropping the subscript s,

p V2
+ + gz = constant BERNOULLI EQUATION
 2

This equation subject to restrictions:

1. Steady flow
2. No friction
3. Flow along a streamline
4. Incompressible flow

Example:

V1

D d D

2
1 3
P2
P1 V2 P3
V1 V3

Water at 10C enters the horizontal venturi tube, shown in the figure, with a uniform and
steady velocity of 2.0 m/s and an inlet pressure of 150 kPa. Find the pressure at the throat, 2,
where d = 3.0 cm and at the exit where D = 6.0 cm.

Find: P2 = ? and P3 = ?

Assumptions:

- Incompressible flow
- Negligible friction
- Steady flow

94
Solution:

We assume constant density and uniform velocity over planes 1 and 2.

Applying the continuity equation between plane 1 and 2, we obtain

A 
2
D
V1 A1 = V2 A2  V2 =  1  V1 =   V1
 A2  d

Applying Bernoulli equation to a streamline connecting cross-sections 1 and 2,

p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + gz1 = + + gz2
 2  2

Assuming that z1 = z2 and solving for p2, we obtain

p2 = p1 +

2
(V 1
2
− V22 )
2
D
Substituting V2 =   V1
d

 D  2
4

p2 = p1 + 1 −    V1
2   d  

 kg 
1000  3  
 6[cm]     m  
4 2
3  N   m 
p2 = 150 10  2  +  
1 −     
2
m  2   3[cm]     s  
N N
p2 = 150 103  2  − 30 103  2 
m  m 
N
p2 = 120 103  2  = 120  kPa 
m 
Similarly, applying the continuity equation and Bernoulli equation between planes 1 and 3,
we can obtain p3.
V1 A1 = V3 A3 
  V1 = V3
A1 = A3 

95
p1 V12 p3 V32
+ + gz1 = + + gz3
 2  2
z1  z3
p1 p3
=  p3 = p1 = 150  kPa 
 

Because, we assumed the water is

inviscid, the static pressure drop (p1-
p2) is fully recovered in the diffuser
by decreasing the fluid velocity to
V1. However, full pressure recovery
would not occur in a real venturi
tube. Viscous effects would produce
a net pressure drop between 1 and 3.

Example: A city has a fire truck whose pump and hose can deliver 60 lt/sec with nozzle
velocity of 36 m/sec. The tallest building in the city is 30 m high. The firefighters hold the
nozzle at an angle of 75 from the ground. Find the minimum distance the firefighters must
stand from the building to put out a fire on the roof without the aid of a ladder. The
firefighters hold the hose 1 m above the ground. Assume that the water velocity is not
reduced by air resistance.

96
Given: Find:
Q = 60 lt/s L=?
V1 = 36 m/s
H = 30 m
 = 75
H1 = 1 m

Assumptions:
- Steady flow
- There is no friction
- Incompressible flow

dx Vx
The slope of the water jet is =
dz Vz
[NOTE: The centerline of the water jet is a streakline, pathline and a streamline]

Writing Bernoulli equation between points 1 and any point on jet

p1 V12 p V2
+ + gz1 = + + gz
 2  2

NOTE:at any point p = p1 = patm

Taking z1 = 0 and solving for V.

V 2 = V12 − 2 gz , z2 = 30 − 1 = 29[m]

With negligible air resistance, there is no force on the fluid in x-direction. Hence,

Vx = V1x = V1 cos 
 V 2 = Vx2 + Vz2 = V12 − 2 gz
V12 cos 2  + Vz2 = V12 − 2 gz
Vz2 = V12 (1 − cos 2  ) − 2 gz
sin 2 

Vz2 = V12 sin 2  − 2 gz

 The jet trajectory equation

dx Vx V1 cos 
= =
dz Vz (V sin 2  − 2 gz )1/2
2
1

multiplying by dz and integrating gives

V1 cos  − V12 sin 2  − 2 gz

x = V1 cos 
g

97
rearrangement gives,

V12 sin 2  2 gz 
x= 1 − 1 − 2 2 
2g  V1 sin  

substituting, z = 29 m,  = 75, V1 = 36 m/s

362 sin150  2(9.81)(29) 

x= 1 − 1 − 2 2 
2(9.81)  36 sin 75 
x  9 [ m]

98
MOMENT OF MOMENTUM
(The Angular Momentum Equation)
To derive the moment of momentum equation we use the similar method that we use for
derivation of continuity and momentum equation, i.e., first we write moment of momentum
for a system, then obtain an equation for the control volume.

Moment of momentum for a system is

dH 
T=  (1)
dt  sys

T : Total torque exerted on the system by its surrounding

where
H : Angular momentum of the system

H= 
M ( sys )
r Vdm = 
 ( sys )
r V  d 
(2)

The position vector r , locates each mass and or volume element of the system with respect to
the coordinate system.

The torque T applied to a system may be written

T = r  Fs + 
M sys
r  gdm + Tshaft (3)
Torque due to Torque applied
surface forces by a shaft
Torque due to
body forces

99
The relation between the system and fixed control volume formulation is

dN    
dt  sys t C   dA
 =  d +  V
CS (4)
N sys = 
M sys
 dm =  d
 sys

and setting N = H and  = r V , then

dH  
 =  r V  d  +  r V V  dA
dt sys t C CS (5)
Combining Eqs. (1), (3), and (5), we obtain

r  Fs +  r  g  d  +Tshaft =
t C
r  V  d  +  r  V V  dA
M sys CS

Torque acting on control volume Rate of change of angular momentum


r  Fs + 
M sys
r  g  d  +Tshaft =
t C
r  V  d  +  r  V V  dA
CS

Moment of momentum equation for an inertial control volume

Example: Consider the pipe mounted on a wall shown in figure. The pipe inside diameter is
20 cm, and both pipe bends are 90. Water enters the pipe at the base and exits at the open
end with a speed of 10 m/s. Calculate the torsional moment and the bending moment at
the base of the pipe. Neglect the weight of water and pipe.

Assumptions:
- Incompresible flow
- Flow is uniform at all cross-
sections.
- Steady flow
- Negligible body force

Find:
- Torsional moment Ty =?
- Bending moment Tx =?

100
Writing the moment of momentum equation

r  Fs +  r  g  d  + Tshaft =  r  V  d  +  r  V V  dA
M sys
t C CS

=0 =0
negligible steady

( ) ( )
r1  Rx1 + p1 A1i + r2  p2 A2 k + Tx i + Ty j =  r1 V V  dA +  r1 V V  dA
A1 A2

r1 = 0, r2 = 0.75i + 1 j − 0.5k [m]

V1 = 10 j  m / s  , V2 = −10k  m / s  , p2 gage = 0

( ) ( ) (1000) 10  D4
2
Tx i + Ty j = 0.75i + 1 j − 0.5k  −10k

Tx i + Ty j = 2356 j − 3142i  Nm


Bending moment Tx = −3142  Nm 

 Moment applied to the control volume by the base
Torsional moment Ty = 2356  Nm 

Moment acting on the base
Tx ) B = −Tx = 3142  Nm
Ty ) = −Ty = −2356  Nm
B

101
APPLICATION TO TURBOMACHINERY

The equation of moment of momentum is used for analysis of rotating machinery. A

turbomachine is a device that uses a moving rotor, carrying a set of blades or vanes, to
transfer work to or from a moving stream of fluid. If the work is done on the fluid by the
rotor, the machine is called a pump or compressor. If the fluid delivers work to rotor, the
machine is called a turbine.

102
Turbomachines are classified as axial flow, radial flow or mixed flow depending on the
direction of fluid motion with respect to the rotor’s axis of rotation as the fluid passes over the
blades. In an axial-flow rotor, the fluid maintains an essentially constant radial position as it
flows from rotor inlet and to rotor outlet. In a radial-flow rotor, the fluid moves primarily
radially from rotor inlet to rotor outlet although fluid may be moving in the axial direction at
the machine inlet or outlet. In the mixed-flow rotor, the fluid has both axial and radial velocity
components as it passes through the rotor.

For turbomachinery analysis, it is convenient to choose a fixed control volume enclosing the
rotor for analysis of torque reaction.

103
The angle of the absolute fluid velocity  is measured from the normal.

Blade angles  are measured relative to the circumferential direction.

104
As a first approximation, torques due to surface forces may be ignored. The torques due
to body forces may be neglected by symmetry. Then for a steady flow, moment of
momentum equation becomes

Tshaft =  r V V  dA =  r V V  dA + 
CS inlet outlet
r V V  dA

Taking the coordinate system in such a way that z-axis is aligned with the axis of rotation of
the machine, and assuming that at the rotor inlet and outlet flow is uniform, we get

Tshaft = ( r2Vt 2 − rV
1 t1 ) mk

or in scalar form

Tshaft = ( r2Vt 2 − rV
1 t1 ) m EULER TURBINE RQUATION

where Vt1 and Vt 2 are tangential components of the absolute fluid velocity crossing the
control surface at inlet and outlet, respectively.

The rate of work done on a turbomachinery rotor is

Win =   Tshaft =  k  Tshaft k = Tshaft

Win =  ( r2Vt 2 − rV
1 t1 ) m

NOTE: r = U tangential velocity of the rotor.

Dividing both sides by mg , we obtain head added to the flow.

105
 Win 1
h = = (U 2Vt 2 − U1Vt1 ) [m]
mg g

The above equation suggest that fluid velocity at inlet and outlet and also rotor velocity
should be defined clearly. It is useful to develop velocity polygons for the inlet and outlet
flows.

Blade angles  are measured relative to the circumferential direction.

Velocity polygon at inlet

106
At the inlet the absolute velocity of the fluid V1 is equal to vectoral sum of the fluid velocity
with respect to blade and the tangential velocity of the rotor, i.e.

V1 = U1 + Vrb1

Vn1 is the normal component of the fluid velocity which is also normal to the flow area.

The angle of the absolute fluid velocity  is measured from the normal.

Note: Vn1 = Vrb1

Velocity polygon at inlet

A similar velocity polygon can also be developed for the outlet such that

V2 = Vrb 2 + U 2

107
The inlet and outlet velocity polygons provide all the information required to calculate
the torque or power absorbed or delivered by the impeller. The resulting values represent
the performance of a turbomachine under idealized conditions at the design operating point;
since we have assumed that all flows are uniform and that they enter and leave the rotor
tangent to blades.

Example: The axial-flow hydraulic turbine has a water flow rate of 75 m3/s, an outer radius
R = 5.0 m, and a blade height h = 0.5 m. Assume uniform properties and velocities over both
the inlet and the outlet. The water temperature is 20C, and the turbine rotates at 60 rpm. The
relative velocities Vr1 and Vr2 make angles of 30 and 10, respectively, with the normal to
the flow area. Find the output torque and power developed by the turbine.

Given:

Q = 75 m3/s

R = 5.0 m

h = 0.5 m

water temperature 20,  = 998 kg/m3

Find: T = ?, W = ?

108
T = m ( R2Vt 2 − R1Vt1 )
m =  g = (998)(9.81) = 74850 [kg / s ]

For an axial flow machine where the blade height h is small compared to the diameter, an
average radius may be utilized.

1 1
R1 = R2  R − h = 5 − 0.5 = 4.75[m]
2 2

The tangential components of the absolute velocity can be calculated from the velocity
triangles,

V1 = U1 + Vrb1

60(2 )
U1 = R1 = 4.75[m] [rad / sec]
60
U1 = 29.85[m / s ]

Q Q Q 75
Vn1 = = = =
A1  R1 −  R2  ( R1 − R2 )  (5.0 − 4.52 )
2 2 2 2 2

Vn1 = 5.03[m / s]

From the velocity triangle,

Vt1 = U1 + Vrb1 cos (180 − 1 ) = U1 − Vrb1 cos 1

Vn1
Vn1 = (Vn )rb1 = Vrb1 sin (180 − 1 ) = Vrb1 sin 1  Vrb1 =
sin 1

1
 Vt1 = U1 − Vn1
tan 1
5.03
Vt1 = 29.85 − = 32.75[m / s ]
tan120

Similarly, for the outlet

109
  2 = 100
Vn1 = Vn 2 = 5.03[m / s]
Vn 2 = (Vn )rb 2
U 2 = U1 = 29.85 [m / s]

Vt 2 = U 2 + Vrb 2 cos ( −  2 ) = U 2 − Vrb 2 cos  2

Vn 2
Vn 2 = (Vn )rb 2 = Vrb 2 sin ( − 1 ) = Vrb 2 sin  2  Vrb 2 =
sin  2

1
 Vt 2 = U 2 − Vn 2
tan  2
5.03
Vt1 = 29.85 − = 30.74[m / s ]
tan100

Hence,

1 t1 ) = 74850 [kg / s ] 4.75[m]30.74[m / s ] − 4.75[m]32.75[m / s ]

T = m ( R2Vt 2 − RV
T = −7.15 105 [ Nm]

The significance of the negative sign is that the torque is in direction opposite that assumed to
be positive. (T is load torque that resists rotation of the turbine.)

The magnitude is T = 7.15 105 [ Nm]

The power output

60(2 )
W = T = (7.15 105 )
60
W = 4.49 106 [ Nm / s]
or
W = 4490[kW ]

110
Example: Water at 0.6 m3/min enters a mixed-flow pump impeller axially through a 5 cm
diameter inlet. The inlet velocity is axial and uniform. The outlet diameter of the impeller is
10 cm. Flow leaves he impeller at a velocity of 3 m/s relative to the radial blades. The
impeller speed is 3450 rpm. Determine the impeller exit width b, the torque input to the
impeller and the horsepower supplied.

Assumptions:

- Neglect torques due to body and surface forces

- Steady flow

- Uniform flow at the inlet and outlet sections

- Incompressible flow

Find:

b2 = ?

Win = ?


t C
Continuity equation  d  +  V  dA = 0
CS
=0

111
 V  dA = 0
CS
NOTE: Vrb2 is normal to the
flow area.
 V  dA +  V  dA = 0
1 2

− V A  +  V A  = 0
1 1 2 2

− V  R  + + V 2 R b  = 0
1 1
2
rb 2 2 2

Vrb 2 2 R2b2 =  Q
0.6  m3 
Q 60  s 
 b2 = = = 0.0106  m
2 R2Vrb 2  m
2 ( 0.1 m)  3   
  s 
b2 = 0.0106  m

Tshaft = ?

From Euler turbine equation

Tshaft = ( R2Vt 2 − R1Vt1 ) m

Vt1 = 0, Vt 2 = U 2 =  R2
2 (3450) 0.6
Tshaft = R2 R2 m = R22 Q = ( 0.05 ) (1000 )
2

60 60
Tshaft = 9.03[ Nm]

Win = ?

2 ( 3450 )
W = T = (9.03)
60
W = 3262.4[W ]
3262.4
W= = 4.375[ HP]
745.7

112
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
(Energy Equation for a Control Volume)

We obtain the general energy equation by combining the first law of thermodynamics and the
transport theorem. For a system, conservation of energy can be written as,

 Net rate of transfer of   Rate of change of 

=
energy to the system   the energy of a system 
   

with mathematical terms

dE 
Q −W =  (1)
dt  system

NOTE: Heat and work are both energies. In general energy can be classified in two groups

1. Mechanical Energy - Chemical energy

- Work - Nuclear energy
- Kinetic energy
- Potential energy
2. Thermal Energy
- Heat
- Internal energy

Mechanical energies are associated with force and motion. Thermal energies are associated
with temperature, molecular structure and heat transfer.

113
 Esys = 
mass
edm = 
 sys
e d 
( sys )

and
v2
e=u+ + gz (2)
2

The system and control volume formulations are related by Reynolds transport theorem

dN  
 =   d  +  V  dA
dt  sys t C CS

To derive energy equation for a control volume, we set N=E and η=e, then

dE  
 =  e d  +  eV  dA ……………….(3)
dt  sys t C CS

Note that in deriving transport equation, the system and control volume coincided at t = t0,
hence we can write

Q − W  = Q − W  (4)

system control volume

Substituting Eqs. (3) and (4) into Eq. (1), we obtain


t C
Q −W = e d  +  eV  dA (5)
CS

Q=? W =?

Rate of Work Done on a Control Volume

If we neglect electrical and other equivalent forms of work, three types of work might be done
on or by the fluid inside the control volume as shown in the figure above

114
1. Shaft Work ( Ws ): is transmitted by a rotating shaft such as pump drive shaft or a turbine
output shaft that is “cut” by the control surface. This work is done by shear stresses in the
“cut” shaft, so it is somewhat similar to shear work. Shaft work is sometimes called ‘pump
work’ or ‘turbine work’ if these devices are present.

2. Work Done on the Control Surface by Normal Stresses (Pressure Work):

Pressure work is done by fluid pressure acting on the boundaries of the control volume.

The work done by force F moved through distance ds is

W = F  ds
W F  ds
Rate of work W = lim = lim = F V
t →0 t t →0 t

The rate of work done on an element of area dA of the control surface by normal stress is
given by
dF V =  nn dA V

The total rate of work done on the entire surface by normal stresses is given by (Since the
work out across the boundaries of the control volume is the negative of the work done on the
control volume)

Wnormal =  −
CS
nn dA  V = −   nnV  dA
CS

Note :  nn = − p

Hence, Wnormal =  pdA V

CS
(6)

3. Shear Work ( Wshear ):

Shear work is done by shear stresses in the fluid acting on boundaries of the control volume.
Similar to normal work,

Wshear = −   VdA
CS

Shear force acting on an area element dA is

dF =  dA
 : shear stress acting in plane of dA

We often choose a control volume with control surfaces lying adjacent to solid boundaries,
and with control surfaces cutting through inlet and outlet ports. Hence, the shear work can be
expressed as two terms

Wshear = − 
A ( solid
 VdA − 
A ( ports )
  VdA
surface )

115
At solid surfaces V = 0 , so the first term is zero (for a fixed control volume)

The last term can be made zero by proper choice of control surfaces. If we choose a control
surface that cuts across each port perpendicular to the flow, then dA is parallel to V and
hence, τ is perpendicular to V. Thus, for control surfaces perpendicular to V
 V = 0 and Wshear = 0

Hence, energy equation for a control volume becomes


Q − Ws −  pV  dA − W
CS
shear − Wother =
t C
e d  +  eV  dA
CS

where
v2
e=u+ + gz, u + p = h
2
Substituting
 pV  dA =  pV  dA
CS CS


e d  +  ( e + p ) V  dA
t C
Q − Ws − Wshear − Wother =
CS

Note: Wshear is zero if there is no control surface that lies within a moving fluid

116
Example: A compressor compresses 6 kg/s of air from inlet conditions T1 = 300 K and P1 =
90 kPa to discharge conditions T2 = 390 K and P2 = 310 kPa. The air in the inlet pipe has a
uniform velocity profile. The air in the discharge pipe has a parabolic velocity profile given
by

  r 2 
u = umax 1 −   
  R2  

where R2 is the inside radius of the of the discharge pipe. Elevation changes are negligible,
and the internal energy change of the air is given by

u2 − u1 = Cv (T2 − T1 )

Assuming steady flow and negligible heat transfer, find the power required to drive the
compressor.

Assumptions:
- Elevation changes are negligible
- Steady flow
- Heat transfer is negligible

Basic equation:Energy equation:


e d  +  ( e + p ) V  dA
t C
Q − Ws − Wshear − Wother =
CS

Simplifying the energy equation to the assumptions we obtain,


e d  +  ( e + p ) V  dA
t C
Q − Ws − Wshear − Wother =
=0 =0 =0 CS
=0

V2
Ws = −  ( e + p ) V  dA e=u+ + gz
CS
2 =0

117
  V2    V2    V2  
Ws = −   u +  + p  V  dA = −   u +  + p  V  dA −   u +  + p  V  dA
CS 
2   Ain 
2   Aout 
2  

Assuming that temperature and pressure are uniform at the inlet and outlet, we get

 V2    V2    V2  
Ws = −   u +  + p   V  dA = −   u +  + p  V  dA −   u +  + p  V  dA
CS 
2   Ain 
2   Aout 
2  
 V2   V2
Ws = −  u1 + 1  + p11  − V1 A1  −  u + p  V  dA −  V  dA
 2   Aout Aout
2
 V2   V2
Ws = −  u1 + 1  + p11  − V1 A1  −  u + p  V  dA −  V  dA
 2   Aout Aout
2
 V12  V3
Ws = −  u1 + + p11  ( −m ) + ( u2 + p22 )  V2 A2  −   dA
 2  Aout
2

3
V3
R2
V3
R2 3
umax   r 2  2umax
3
R22
A 2 dA =
 0 2
 2 rdr = 2 0 2   R2  
 1 −  rdr =
8
out  

We relate umax to the average velocity by,

R2   r 2 
m =  2V2 A2 =  2u2 dA =  2umax 1 −    2 rdr
0   R2  
u
2V2 R22 = 2 max  R22  umax = 2V2
2
R22  2 ( 2V2 ) R2
3
2umax
3 2
V3
A  2 dA = 8 = 8
=  2V23 R22 = mV22
out

 V2 
Ws = −m ( u2 − u1 ) − m ( p22 − p11 ) − m  V22 − 1 
 2 

Assuming air is an ideal gas,

u2 − u1 = Cv (T2 − T1 )
p22 − p12 = R (T2 − T1 )

Also,

118
 m 
V2 =
 2 A2  mRT2
  V2 =
p p2 A2
2 = 2 
RT2 
 kg   Nm 
6   287  390  K 
 s   kgK  m
V2 = = 11  
N s
310000  2  0.196  m 2 
m 
 kg   Nm 
6   287  300  K 
m mRT1  s   kgK  m
V1 = = = = 29.3  
1 A1 p1 A1 N s
90000  2  0.196  m 2 
m 

Substituting back into expression for Ws

 V2 
Ws = −m ( u2 − u1 ) − m ( p22 − p11 ) − m  V22 − 1 
 2 
 kg   j   j 
( 390 − 300 )  K  − 6   2807   ( 390 − 300 )  K  − 6   (11.22 − 29.32 )
kg kg
Ws = −6   720  
 s   kgK   s   kgK   s 
 j
Ws = − ( 388800 + 155000 − 1800 )  
s
 
  j
 
Ws = −  388800 + 155000 − 1800   
 internal energy flow work kinetic energy   s 
 "mechanical 
 pressure enrgy" 
Ws = −542  kW 

Note that a large portion of the compressor input work appears as an increase in the thermal
(internal) energy and the mechanical “pressure energy” of this comnpressible fluid. The
kinetic energy change is much smaller.

Example: Turbines convert the energy contained within a fluid into mechanical energy or
shaft work. A turbine is installed in a dam as shown in the figure. Water is permitted to flow
through a passage way to the turbine after which the water drains downstream. For the data
given in the figure, determine the power available to the turbine when the discharge at the
outlet is 30 m3/s.

119
Assumptions:
• Steady flow
• Incompressible flow
• No heat transfer
• Internal energy change can be neglected

Basic equation:Energy equation:


e d  +  ( e + p ) V  dA
t C
Q − Ws − Wshear − Wother =
CS

With these assumptions, energy equation becomes

Ws = −  ( e + p ) V  dA
CS

Ws = −  ( e + p ) V  dA −  ( e + p ) V  dA
A1 A2

V2
e=u+ + gz assuming also flow is uniform
2

120
Ws = − ( e + p ) − VA  − ( e + p )  VA 
1 2

= − ( e + p )( −m ) 1 − ( e + p ) m  2

 V2   V2 
= −  u2 + 2 + gz2 + p22  −  u1 + 1 + gz1 + p11   m
 2   2 
 V 2 − V12 
= − ( u2 − u1 ) + 2 + ( p22 − p11 ) + g ( z2 − z1 )  m
 2 

Note: u2 − u1  0 negligible internal energy change.

1 = 2 incompressible flow

V 2 V 2 
Ws = −m  2 − 1 + g ( z2 − z1 ) 
 2 2 

V1 can be found using Bernoulli equation, between free surface and nozzle exit

pA VA2 p V2
+ + gz A = 1 + 1 + gz1
 2  2
p1  p A = patm
VA  0
V12 V12
gz A = + gz1  = g ( z A − z1 )
2 2

V 2 
Ws = −m  2 − g ( z A − z1 ) + g ( z2 − z1 ) 
 2 
V 2

Ws = −m  2 − g ( z A − z2 ) 
 2 

From continuity equation

Q 30 m
Q = V1 A1 = V2 A2  V2 = = = 5.24  
( 2.7 ) s
2
A2

4

Substituting these values into energy equation,

121
 V22 
Ws = −m  − g ( z A − z2 ) 
 2 
V 2

Ws = −  Q  2 − g ( z A − z2 ) 
 2 
 5.242 
Ws = − (1000 )( 30 )  − 9.81( 20 − 6 ) 
 2 
 Nm 
Ws = +3708336   3.7  MW  plus sign indicates that work is done by the system.
 s 

Average Properties and Velocities

Usually, the uniform flow assumption is only an approximation and we use average velocities
and property values to calculate flow of energy at various inlet and outlet planes. For accurate
calculations, we must carefully define the averages so that they truly represent associated
energy flows. In most cases, appropriate average values of u, p,  and z are readily apparent
because these properties are often closely uniform across the section. However, determination
of average velocity and hence kinetic energy flux requires a careful attention.

 V  dA
Average Velocity is defined as V = A
A

Average Kinetic Energy

Since velocity is usually non-uniform, representing the kinetic energy flux in terms of
uniform velocity slightly more complicated.

V2
Ek =   V  dA
A
2

V2
Since velocity is not uniform, Ek   VA
2

hence, a kinetic energy correction factor  is defined by

V3
 dA
= 2
V3
 A
2

1 
The true kinetic energy flux across a plane is Ek =   V 3 A 
2 

122
For flow in a circular pipe,  ranges from 2 for fully developed laminar flow to about 1.05 for
fully developed turbulent flow.

123
INTERNAL INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS FLOW

Energy Equation for a Flow in a Pipe

Assumptions
1. No shaft work
2. Incompressible flow
3. Steady flow
4. Internal energy and pressure
are uniform at cross sections 1
and 2


Q − Ws − Wshear − Wother =  e d  +  ( e + p ) V  dA
=0 =0 =0
t C CS
=0

V2
e=u+ + gz
2
Considering, u, p and  are uniform over inlet and outlet cross-sections, we can write

p p  V2 V2
Q = m ( u2 − u1 ) + m  2 − 1  + m ( z2 − z1 ) +  2 V2 dA2 −  1 V1dA1
   A2
2 A1
2

Note: At cross-sections 1 and 2, velocity profiles are non-uniform. However, integrals in the
above equation can be expressed in terms of average velocity and kinetic energy correction
factor, i.e.

V2 V2 V2
 2
A2
VdA = 
2
VA = 
2
m

Therefore, energy equation becomes,

p p   V2 V2 
Q = m ( u2 − u1 ) + m  2 − 1  + m ( z2 − z1 ) + m   2 2 − 1 1 
    2 2 

124
dividing by mass flow rate and rearranging, we get

 p1 V12   p2 V22  u −u Q
 +  + z1 =  +  + z2  + 2 1 −
 g   g g m
1 2
2 2  g

Q
heat transfer rate per unit mass of moving fluid.
m

For incompressible flow (combining the first and the second law of thermodynamics),

gh f = u2 − u1 − q

Here hf represents the loss of potential to perform useful work. It shows us that the internal
energy (and hence temperature) of an incompressible fluid can be increased by two ways: heat
transfer to the fluid and friction. Only one effect can cause an internal energy decrease;
namely heat transfer from fluid, as ghf cannot be negative.

 p1 V12   p2 V22 
 + 1 + z1  =  + 2 + z2  + h f EXTENDED BERNOULLI EQUATION
 g 2   g 2 

hf is called head loss

Example:

An incompressible viscous fluid flows between two horizontal parallel plates as shown. The
plates are spaced 0.5 cm apart and are very wide perpendicular to page. Flow is laminar and
velocity profile at any cross section is given by,

125
 Y 2  P    y 
 2

u=−   1 −  

2  L    Y 
where P is the pressure change that occurs in length L. Calculate average mechanical energy
loss hf between the pressure gages. Then show that mechanical energy loss also satisfies the
equations

2
 u 
CV   y  d   L V 
2
VY
gh f = and gh f = Re     where Re =
m  Y  2  

Using the energy equation (extended Bernoulli equation)

 p1 V12   p2 V22 
 + 1 + z1  =  + 2 + z2  + h f
 g 2   g 2 

z1 = z2
Note: Velocity profiles are identical.

p1 − p2
 hf =
g
1000 − 0
hf = = 0.119  m
850 ( 9.81)

p1 − p2 1000 − 0  j 
gh f = = = 1.18  
 850  kg 

Y 2  P    y  
2

u=−  −
   
1
2  L    Y  
u y P
=
y  L

2 2
 u   y P 
Y
 P 
2

  y 
 d  2  0   L  WLdy L   Y Y 2L  P 
2

= 
L 
VY 0
CV
= y 2
dy =  
m V 2YW 3V  L 

Y 2  P    y  
Y Y 2

2 udy −2   −
     dy
1
2  L    Y   1  Y 2   P  2
V = = = −    = umax
0 0

2Y 2Y 3    L  3

126

2
 u 
CV   y  d  1  P  P 1 − P2
=−  L= = gh f
m   L  

CLASSIFYING THE FLOW IN A PIPE OR DUCT

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

If the flow in a pipe is laminar, the fluid moves along smooth streamlines.

If the flow is turbulent, a rather violent mixing of the fluid occurs, and the fluid velocity at a
point varies randomly with time.

The difference between laminar and turbulent flows were classified by Osborne Reynolds in
1883. Reynolds performed a series of experiments.

Pipe-flow transition experiment. (a) laminar flow. (b) High ReD, turbulent flow. (c) Spark photograph
of turbulent flow condition. (After O. Reynolds, an experimental investigation of the circumstances
which determine whether the motion of water shall be direct or sinuous and of the law of resistance in
parallel channels, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., London, A174:935–982, 1883)

127
Reynolds’ experiments showed that the nature of the pipe flow depends on the Reynolds
number,

Vd
Re =


Developing and Fully Developed Flow

The flow in a constant area duct or pipe is said to be fully developed if the shape of the
velocity profile is the same at all cross sections.

The length Le is called entrance length or the developing length.

Le
= f ( Re )
d
Le
 0.06 Re laminar flow
d
Le
 4.4 ( Re ) turbulent flow
16

128