Hydraulics-I Kinematics 2021

CHAPTER FOUR
4.0. KINEMATICS OF FLUID FLOW
Introduction: -Kinematics of fluid deals with the geometry of motion, i.e. space – time
relation ships of fluids only without regards to the forces causing the motion.

They are generally deals with velocity & acceleration of fluid, and the description and
visualization of motion.
The concept of a free body diagram, as used in static of rigid bodies in a fluid static is
usually inadequate for the analysis of moving fluids. Instead we frequently find the
concepts of system & control volume to be useful in the analysis of fluid mechanics.

A fluid system refers to a specific mass of fluid within the boundaries defined by a
closed surface. The shape of the system, & so the boundaries, may change with time, as
when liquid flows through a constriction, as a fluid moves& deforms, so the system
containing it moves & deforms.
In contrast, a control volume refers to a fixed region in space, which doesn’t move or
change shape. It is usually chosen as a region that fluid flows in to & out of it.
The control volume approach is also called the Eulerian approach.

In the Eulerian method the observers concern is to know what happens at any given point
in the space, which is filled by fluid in motion, what are the velocities, acceleration,
pressure, etc at various parts at a given time.

Therefore, Eulerian method is mostly used because it is more useful in the analysis of the
majority of engineering problems.

4.1. DIMENSION OF FLOW

A Fluid flow said to be one, two or three-dimensional flow depending up on the number
of independent space coordinate & required to describe the flow.

When the dependent variables (example, velocity, pressure density etc) are a function of
one space co-ordinate say x- coordinate) it is known as one-dimensional flow.
Example of one –dimensional flow (1D): flow through pipes & channels, between
boundaries, etc if the velocity distribution is considered constant at each cross-section.

‘’ ONE – DIMENSION’’ is taken along the central streamline of the flow dependent
variables vary only with X- direction (or s- direction).

When the dependent variables vary only with two – space coordinates, the flow is known
as two – Dimensional flow (2 -D).

Example: Flow around a circular cylinder of infinite length, flow such that all streamlines
are plane curves & are identical in a series of parallel planes such that the flow at any X-
direction is the same.
Generally a, fluid is a rather complex three- dimensional, time dependent phenomenon,

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i.e., V= V( x, y, z, t ) . In almost any flow situation, the velocity field actually contains
all three-velocity components (u, v, w) & each is a function of all three-space coordinates
(X, Y, Z).
Example of a 3 – D flow: the flow of air past an airplane wing provides a complex three-
dimensional flow.
4. 1.1 Velocity & Acceleration in a fluid flow
In general, fluids flow from one point in space to another point as a function of time. This
motion of fluid is described in terms of the velocity & acceleration of the fluid particles.
At a given time instant, a description of any fluid property (such as density, pressure,
Velocity, & acceleration) may be given as a function of the fluids location.
i.e, V = u ( x, y, z, t , ) i +v ( x, y ,z, t, ) j + w ( x, y z, t)k
An infinitesimal change in Velocity (u/ is given by:
 V u u
 u  x y  z t
x Y z t
The acceleration components are given by:.
u u u u
ax  u v w 
x y z t
V V Y v
. ay  u  V  w 
x Y z t
w w w w
a  u  V  w 
x y y t
z

ay ay &az are called total or substantial acceleration in the X, y & z direction , the
components are called convective acceleration excluding the last expression
 u v  
 , ,&  Which are called local acceleration
 t t t 
* Total acceleration  a  ax i  ay j  a zk
 Convective acceleration – it is instantaneous space rate of change of velocity,
 Local acceleration: - local time rate of change of velocity,
Example: 1 A fluid flow is described by the velocity field:
V = 5x 3 j - 15 x2 y j + t k. Evaluate the velocity & acceleration components at pints
( 1, 2., 3, 1, )
4.2. Describing the pattern of flow
Although fluid motion is complicated, there are various concepts that can be used to help
in the visualization & analysis of flow fields. This pattern of flow may be described by
mean of streamlines, stream tubes, path lines and streamlines.

Stream lines:- it is an imaginary curve drawn through a flowing fluid in such a way that
the tangent to it at any point gives the direction of the velocity of flow at that pints. Since
the velocity vector is everywhere tangent to the streamlines, there can be no component
of velocity at right angles to the streamlines and hence there is no flow across the
streamlines.

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Since the instantaneous velocity at a point in a fluid must be unique in magnitude &
direction, the same point can’t pass more than one streamlines. Therefore, streamlines
don’t cross or intersect each other.

The velocity vector at point p must be tangent to the streamline at that point. V
dy v
Therefore,  tan   
dx u
U dy  Vdx  0 ………….Equation of streamlines
Example: - Given the velocity field:
V = 5x3 i – 15x 2 y j , obtain the equation of the streamlines.
Stream tube: - is a tube imaginated to be formed by a group of streamlines passing
through a small closed curve.
- A fluid can enter or leave a stream tube only at its ends
Path line: - a path line is a line traced out by a given single fluid particle as it moves
from one point to another over a period of time.
In steady flow path lines &streamlines are identical.
Streak lines: - A Striakline consists of all particles in flows that have previously passed
through a common point. They can be obtained by taking instantaneous photographs of
marked particles that all passed through a given location in the flow field at some earlier
time.
In experimental work often a color or a dye is injected in the flowing fluid, in order to
trace the motion of the fluid particles. The resulting trail of color is known as streak lines.
For steady flow, each successively injected particle follows precisely behind the previous
one, forming a steady streak line that is exactly behind the previous one, forming a steady
streak line that is exactly the same as the streamline through the injection point.
Hence, path line, streamlines & streak lines are the same for steady flows.
4.3 Types of flow
(A) Classification according to type of fluid
(i) Ideal fluid flow – the fluid is assumed to have no viscosity. The velocity distribution
is thus assumed uniform ---- (idealized)
(ii) Real fluid flow: viscosity is taken in to consideration, which leads to the
development of shear stress b/n moving layers. However. Some fluids such as water are
near to an ideal fluid, and this simplifying assumption enables mathematical methods to
be adopted in the solution of certain flow problems.
(iii) Compressible fluid flow: - if variation of pressure results in considerable changes in
volume & density. Gases are generally treated as compressible.
(iv) Incompatible fluid flow - if extremely large variation in pressure is required to
affect very small changes in volume. Liquids are generally treated as incompressible.
(B) Classification according to variation of velocity, displacement and etc
(i) Steady flow: - A flow is said to be steady if at any point in the flowing fluid
characteristic such as velocity, pressure, density etc don’t change with time. However this
characteristic may be different at different points in the flowing fluid.
V p
  0,  0 , ets
t t
(ii) Unsteady flow: - if at any point in the flowing fluid any one of all of the
characteristics, which describes the behavior of fluids in motion changes with time.

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V
  0, p  0 , etc
t t
(iii) Uniform flow: - this occurs when the velocity both in magnitude & direction
remains constant with respect to distance, i. e it doesn’t change from point to point
 v  o
s
Example flow of fluid under pressure through long tube of constant diameter.
(iv) Non- uniform flow: - if there is a change in velocity either in magnitude or
direction with respect to distance , then
V
0
s
(V) Laminar flow: - in laminar flow the particles of fluid move in an orderly manners &
the steam lines retain the same relative position in successive cross section. Laminar flow
is associated with low velocity of flow and viscous fluids.
(Vi) Turbulent flow: - Here the fluid particles flow in a disorder manner occupying
different relative positions in successive cross section. Turbulent flow is associated with
high velocity flows.
Around 1883, Reynolds established the boundary between the laminar and turbulent
flow, using the dimensionless number called Reynolds’s number, Re.
VD
Re =  V  mean velocity

D- diameter
- Kinematics viscosity
Reynolds showed that if
Re < 2000 ---- laminar flow
Re> 4000 ----- Turbulent
In b/n 2000 & 4000 it is transition flow.
4.3. Continuity Equation
The continuity equation is a mathematical statement of the principle of conservation of
mass. Considers the following fixed region with flowing fluid. Since fluid is neither
created nor destroyed with in the region it may be stored that the rate of increase of mass
contained with in the region must be equal to the differences b/n the rate at which the
fluid mass enters the region & the rate of which it leaves the region.
Fixed region

Mass of fluid Mass of fluid leaving

entering the region the region

However, if the flow is steady, the rate of increase of the fluid mass with in the region is
equal to zero; then the rate at which fluid mass enters the region is equal to the rate at
which the fluid mass leaves the region.

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Considers flow through a portion of a stream tube:

At section-1 area of elementary
Tube = dA1 A1
Average velocity = V1 A2
Density = 1
Mass of fluid per unit time flowing past section-1 = 1 dA1 V1 [ ks/s
Similarly at section-2- Area of elementary tube= dA2
Average velocity = V2
Density = 2
Mass of fluid flowing per unit of time past section 2 = 2 dA2 V2
For steady flow, by the principle of conservation of mass
1 dA1 V1 = 2 d A2 V2
For the entire area of the stream tube:
 1 dA1 V1    2 dA2 V 2  cons tan t
A A2

If 1 and 2 are average densities at section (1) and (2), then

1  V1dA1   2  V 2 dA2   VA  cons tan t
A1

1 V1 A1 = 2V2 A2 =  vA = CONSTANT
This is equation of continuity applicable to steady, one-dimensional flow of compressible
as well as incompressible (1 = 2) flow
For incompressible flow, = constant and doesn’t vary form point to point, 1 = 2
 A 1 V1 = A2 V2 = Q = constant
This is continuity equation for steady incompressible flow.
Q is the discharge (or Volumetric flow rate or flow) defined as
Q = AV [m2 m/s = m3/s = Volume/time]
Q Q
Q = A1 V2 = A2 V2 --- V 1  ,V 2 
A1 A2
Hence, the velocity of flow is inversely proportional to the area of flow section. This
useful for most engineering application.
The general equation of continuity for three dimensional ( 3-D) flow can be derived as
follows.
Consider a flow through a rectangular parallelepiped of dimensions: x,  y,  z

Z X
The mass of fluid flowing per unit time through the left face BCD   U  y  z 
The mass of fluid flowing out of the parallelepiped through face A’B’C’D’

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
= U (  y  z ) . +   U  y z   x
x
 The net mass of fluid that remain in the parallelepiped per unit time:
 
  u  y  z   u  y  z  U  y  z   x
 x 

 U  y  x  z 
x
By similar procedure the mass of fluid remaining in the others two pairs of faces (y, z)

Y – Direction =   V   x  y  z
y

Z-direction =   w   x y  z
z
The net total mass of fluid that remains in the parallelepiped per unit time is :
  u    v   w
= -      x  y  z            1
 x y z 
The mass of fluid in the parallelepiped is:
  x  y  z  & its rate of increase with time is:
   x  y  z     x  y  z         2
t z
      v     w   
Equating 1 & 2 we get:   (  u )        
  x   y   z    t
In polar coordinate system,
  u  v   w
            0
t   x   y    z 
(General continuity equation in 3-D Flow)
   vt r   V   V z 
             0 In Cylindrical coordinate system
t  r  r   r      z 

For steady flow, 0
t
 u  v   w
            0 (Steady compressible fluid)
  x   y    z 

For incompressible flow,  doesn’t change with x, y, z, and t

 = Constant
u v w
    0 - (Continuity equation for incompressible, steady flow in 3-D)
x y z

4.4. Stream function ( ) and velocity potential ()

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Stream function ( ): - Since no fluid can cross a stream line, the flow occurring b/n two
stream lines must remain unchanged.
- Consider the following stream line pattern of two dimensional, steady,
incompressible flow,
B
B’

A
Let A be fixed position & be variable position in the flow field, let the thickness of the
flow field be unity in the z – direction.
Rate of flow through curve APB = Rate of flow through AQB.
The rate of flow across the curve AQ B depends only on the end point A &B.
If the value of  at A is zero, then the value of  at B represents the volume flow rate
across any curve joining B to A.
Consider point B be on a stream line through B, since theirs is no flow a cross BB’,
Flow rate across AB’ = flow rate a cross APB
  - Value at B’ will be the same as at B.
  is constant along a stream line.
Each streamline will have different  value (stream function). The different  value of
two streamlines will give the flow rate b/n the two streamlines.

Relation b/n  and velocity component

Let  = value of stream function of stream line AB
C
     Value of stream function of streamline CD
n- Normal distance b/n AB & CD
Then   Q n m2 / s 
A n

 m p
As  n  0 , q  D
n
Flow a cross m n = flow rate though mp + flow rate through nP B
Let u be velocity across n p, v = across m P
By analogy of q =  
y

u
y

V 
x
The differential equation of streamline,
udy = Vdx for two dimension
By substituting the expression for u & v in to the differential equation of a stream line
we obtain:

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     
  dy     dx
y  x 
 
 dy  dx 0
y x
The totals differential d of a stream function is given by:
 
d = dy d x  0
y x
It therefore follows that, d  = 0 along a streamline. Hence  remains constant along a
streamline. Every streamline has its own .
The continuity equation for 2-D, incompressible flow is:
u  v
  0         1
 x y
From the steam function definitions: -

u
y ………………………. (ii)

V 
x
Substituting ii in (i) we have;
2  2 2 2
   0
 x y  yx x y  x  y
This shows that continuity equation is also satisfied.
Velocity potential ()
A fluid element in the shape of cube, which is initially at one position, will move to
another position during a short time interval t. because of generally complex velocity
variation within the field, we expect the element to not only translate from one position
but change in shape (angular deformation). The form of movement may be in the form of:
a) Translation or rotation and
b) Volume dilation or angular deformation
Translation:- means simply picking up the element and moving a distance during a
small time dt.
Rotation:- is defined as the average angular velocity of two elements originally at
right angles to each other.

tan (d1) d1= x


v dx.dt 
(for the horizontal element dx).
dx
 d v
  1 
dt x
For the vertical element (dy),
  u dy.dt 
y    u dt
tan( d 2 )  d 2  
dy y
 d  u
 2  2 
dt y

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The average of the two is the element angular velocity about the Z-axis, i.e.
 v u 
 z  1 2   
 x y 
Rotations about the other two axes are defined as:
 w v 
 x  1 2   
 y z 
 u w 
 y  12   
 z x 
Angular velocity is a vector quantity:
   xi   y j  z k
Irrotational flow: occurs when the cross-gradient of the velocity (or shear) are zero or
cancel each other.
 v u 
i.e.,  z  1    = 0 (for two dimensional flow)
2 x y
 
Velocity potential is a useful function in solving flow problems. The velocity potential
() is related to velocity components as follows:
 
u
x
 
v
y
For two dimensional, Irrotational flows:
 v u 
 z  1 2    =0
 x y 
       
    0
x  y  y  x 
 2  2
 0
yx xy
For continuity equation:
u v w
  0
x y z
 2  2  2
  0
x 2 y 2 z 2
This equation is known as Laplac’s equation.
The in viscid, incompressible, Irrotational flow fields are governed by Laplace’s
equation.
The lines of equal values of velocity potential are called Equipotential Lines.

Lecture Note 9