Trade of Electrician

Standards Based Apprenticeship

Ohms Law / The Basic Circuit

Phase 2 Module #nit o! 2!"

o! 2!"!$

CO#%SE OTES

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

Created by Gerry Ryan - Galway TC Re ision 1. !"ril 2### by Gerry Ryan - Galway TC $o%n &atters - Sli'o TC Re ision 2. No . 2##2 by Gerry Ryan - Galway TC C%ris (udlow ) *undal+ TC Re ision ,. -ay 2##. by C%ris (udlow ) *undal+ TC Re ision 4. Feb 2##/ by C%ris (udlow ) *undal+ TC

Published by FS - Training and Em loymen! "u!hori!y P.#. $o% 4&' 2(-)) * er $aggo! S!ree! +ublin 4 ,reland - FS - 2008 "ll righ!s reserved. .o ar! o/ !his ubli0a!ion may be re rodu0ed1 s!ored in a re!rieval sys!em or !ransmi!!ed in any /orm or by any means1 ele0!roni01 me0hani0al1 ho!o0o ying1 re0ording or o!her2ise1 2i!hou! !he rior ermission o/ !he 0o yrigh! o2ner.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

Ta&le of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS...............................................................................................................................3 ..........................................................................................................................................................................3 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................4 STRUCTURE OF MATTER.........................................................................................................................5 THE ATOM.....................................................................................................................................................7 GRAPHICAL SYMBOLS...........................................................................................................................12 ELECTRIC CURRENT FLOW..................................................................................................................13 THE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT..................................................................................................................17 OHMS LAW................................................................................................................................................20 ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT REQUIREMENTS..........................................................................................2 BASIC CIRCUITS CONCEPTS.................................................................................................................27 THE EFFECTS OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT.....................................................................................30 SI UNITS........................................................................................................................................................33 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS.....................................................................................35 RESISTORS..................................................................................................................................................40 INDICES........................................................................................................................................................44

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

'ntroduction
3el0ome !o !his se0!ion o/ your 0ourse1 2hi0h is designed !o assis! you1 !he learner1 unders!and !he basi0 !heory o/ ele0!ri0i!y1 basi0 ele0!ri0al 0ir0ui!s and 0om le!e basi0 0ir0ui! 0al0ula!ions.

Objectives
$y !he end o/ !his uni! you 2ill be able !o4 *nders!and !he basi0 !heory o/ ele0!ri0i!y 5is! 0ommon 0ondu0!ing ma!erials 5is! 0ommon insula!ing ma!erials Re0ognise and use im or!an! 0ir0ui! symbols S!a!e !he uni!s o/ 6urren!1 7ol!age and Resis!an0e 6al0ula!e 0ir0ui! values using #hm8s 5a2 *nders!and basi0 0ir0ui! ro!e0!ion *nders!and basi0 0ir0ui! 0on!rol E% lain !he !erm 9shor! 0ir0ui!: E% lain !he !erm 9o en 0ir0ui!: *nders!and !he basi0 e//e0!s o/ an ele0!ri0 0urren! ;easure 0ir0ui! 0urren!s using an amme!er ;easure 0ir0ui! vol!ages using a vol!me!er ;easure resis!or values using an ohmme!er 6he0< 0on!inui!y o/ 0ir0ui!s using an ohmme!er *nders!and and use !he basi0 resis!or 0olour 0ode Per/orm 0al0ula!ions involving indi0es

Reasons
The in/orma!ion in !his uni! is essen!ial1 i/ you are !o rogress !o !he oin! 2here you 0an o era!e as a 0om e!en! ele0!ri0ian.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

Structure of Matter
#ur 2orld is made u o/ various ma!erials. ,! 0on!ains soil1 2a!er1 ro0<1 sand e!0. ,! is surrounded by an invisible layer o/ gas1 2hi0h 2e 0all air. The s0ien!i/i0 name given !o ea0h o/ !hese ma!erials is !"##$%. (Matter is an)thin* which occupies space and which has mass+ ;a!!er 0an e%is! in one o/ !hree /orms i.e. as a solid1 a li=uid or a gas. 3ood is a solid1 2a!er is a li=uid and air is a gas. These !hree /orms o/ ma!!er are <no2n as !he S#"#$& '( M"##$%.

States of Matter
;any o/ !hese ma!erials are /ound in !he ear!h. 6oal is mined1 oil is /ound underground and many me!als 0an be /ound in !he ro0<s o/ !he ear!h. Some ma!erials 0ome /rom lan!s. Sugar 0omes /rom bee! and rubber 0omes /rom a !ree. The main ro er!ies o/ ea0h s!a!e 0an be summarised as /ollo2s4

Solids
1. S')*+& ,"-$ " +$(*.*#$ &,"/$. Ea0h solid has i!s o2n sha e and 2ill re!ain !his sha e unless i! is sub>e0!ed !o hea!ing or 0onsiderable /or0e. 2. S')*+& ,"-$ " +$(*.*#$ -')0!$. ,! is very di//i0ul! !o s=uee?e !hem in!o smaller bul<s. Solids are said !o be almos! in0om ressible. ). S')*+& +' .'# ()'1. They do no! s read over a sur/a0e.

Liquids
1. L*20*+& ,"-$ .' +$(*.*#$ &,"/$. They al2ays ado ! !he sha e o/ !he 0on!ainer in!o 2hi0h !hey are la0ed. 2. L*20*+& ,"-$ " +$(*.*#$ -')0!$. 5i<e solids1 !hey are almos! in0om ressible. ). L*20*+& ()'1 ".+ $-"/'%"#$ 3hen s illed !hey usually s read over !he sur/a0e. ;os! li=uids eva ora!e /rom o en 0on!ainers i.e. !hey 0hange !o a gaseous /orm1 @ va our A a! !he sur/a0e.

&

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

Gases
1. G"&$& ,"-$ .' +$(*.*#$ &,"/$. They al2ays !a<e u !he sha e o/ !he 0on!ainer in!o 2hi0h !hey are la0ed. 2. G"&$& ,"-$ .' +$(*.*#$ -')0!$. They al2ays s read ou! in all dire0!ions !o /ill !he 0on!ainer in!o 2hi0h !hey are la0ed. This s reading ou! o/ gas !o /ill all !he available s a0e is 0alled +*((0&*'.. ). G"&$& 3". 4$ 3'!/%$&&$+ $"&*)5. " given volume o/ gas 0an be s=uee?ed @ ressurised A in!o a smaller volume.

Refer to Figure 1a:

,n a solid !he ar!i0les are arranged in a regular a!!ern. They 0anno! be moved ou! o/ osi!ion. There/ore !he solid has a de/ini!e sha e. Re/er !o Figure 1b4 ,n a li=uid !he ar!i0les 0an slide over one ano!her. Sin0e !here are no regular arrangemen!s o/ ar!i0les1 !he li=uid has no sha e o/ i!s o2n. " li=uid al2ays !a<es u !he sha e o/ i!s 0on!ainer.

F*60%$ 1"

F*60%$ 14

'

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

Re/er !o Figure 104 ,n a gas !he ar!i0les are mu0h /ur!her a ar! !han in a li=uid or a solid. Par!i0les in a gas move in!o all !he s a0e available.

F*60%$ 13

The Atom
"ll ma!!er is 0om osed o/ a!oms. "n a!om is !he basi0 building blo0< o/ ma!!er. There are di//eren! !y es o/ a!oms1 bu! all a!oms are $7#%$!$)5 small. A#'!& are made u o/ smaller ar!i0les 0alled P%'#'.&8 N$0#%'.& ".+ E)$3#%'.&.

Definitions
A#'!9 P%'#'.9 N$0#%'.9 E)$3#%'.9 The smalles! or!ion o/ a ma!erial !ha! s!ill e%hibi!s all !he 0hara0!eris!i0s o/ !ha! ma!erial. The Pro!on has a Posi!ive @ : A 0harge o/ ele0!ri0i!y. ,! is si!ua!ed in !he .03)$0& @ or 0ore A o/ !he a!om. The Neu!ron is ele0!ri0ally Neu!ral. ,! is also si!ua!ed in !he .03)$0& o/ !he a!om. The Ele0!ron has a N$6"#*-$ @ - A 0harge o/ ele0!ri0i!y. Ele0!rons '%4*# !he nu0leus o/ !he a!om a! grea! s eed.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

Simplified Representation of toms

The models o/ !hree di//eren! a!oms are sho2n in Figures 2a1 2b and 20. They illus!ra!e ho2 !he ele0!ron@sA are arranged around !he nu0leus. The sim les! a!om o/ all - !he H5+%'6$. a!om1 0onsis!s o/ a single ele0!ron orbi!ing a nu0leus1 2hi0h1 is 0om osed o/ a single ro!on.

, ) d ro * e n A to m " E le c t r o n - " P r o t o n
F*60%$ 2"

!"e carbon atom 0onsis!s o/1 ' ele0!rons orbi!ing a nu0leus o/ ' ro!ons and ' neu!rons.

F*60%$ 24

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

The 3'//$% a!om 0onsis!s o/1 2B ele0!rons orbi!ing a nu0leus o/ 2B ro!ons and )& neu!rons.
E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E

E E E E

C o p p e r A to m 2 . E le c t r o n s - 2 . P r o t o n s - / 0
F*60%$ 23

e u tro n s

#lectrons orbi! !he nu0leus o/ !he a!om in shells. The inner shell 0anno! have any more !han
!2o ele0!rons. The 0o er a!om has /our shells. The ou!er shell is <no2n as !he valen0e shell. The ele0!rons in !he ou!er shell are more easily dislodged /rom !he a!om !han !he ele0!rons in !he inner shells. "n a!om 0anno! have more !han eigh! ele0!rons in i!s ou!er or valen0e shell.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

La$s of #lectric %"arge

There are basi0 la2s o/ na!ure1 2hi0h des0ribes !he a0!ion o/ ele0!ri0 0harges. These la2s s!a!e4 1. 2. 5i<e 0harges re el ea0h o!her *nli<e 0harges a!!ra0! ea0h o!her.

!$o &egative c"arges

F*60%$ 3". E)$3#%'.& R$/$)

!$o 'ositive c"arges

F*60%$ 34. P%'#'.& R$/$)

&egative c"arge and a 'ositive c"arge

F*60%$ 33. E)$3#%'.& ".+ P%'#'.& A##%"3#

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

!"e (alanced tom

,n !he reviously men!ioned e%am les @ hydrogen1 0arbon and 0o er A you may have no!i0ed !ha! !he number o/ ele0!rons 2as al2ays e=ual !o !he number o/ ro!ons. This is normally !rue o/ any a!om. 3hen !his is !he 0ase1 !he a!om is said !o be neu!ral1 balan0ed or normal. Co2ever1 e%!ernal /or0es 0an u se! !his s!a!e.

!"e )nbalanced tom

"n a!om !ha! has gained or los! one or more ele0!rons is no longer balan0ed. "n unbalan0ed a!om is 0alled an *'.. The a!om !ha! has )'&# an ele0!ron has an overall P'&*#*-$ 0harge. The a!om !ha! has 6"*.$+ an ele0!ron has an overall N$6"#*-$ 0harge.

%onductors
,n some ma!erials !he ele0!rons in !he ou!er shells are easily dislodged. They 0an move /rom a!om !o a!om inside !he ma!erial. This movemen! o/ ele0!rons is $)$3#%*3 30%%$.# ()'1. ;a!erials1 !hrough 2hi0h ele0!ri0 0urren! 0an /lo2 /reely1 are 0alled 3'.+03#'%&. Some !y i0al 0ondu0!ors are 3'//$%8 ")0!*.*0!8 4%"&&8 &#$$)8 &*)-$% ".+ 6')+.

*nsulators
,n o!her ma!erials !he ele0!rons are !igh!ly bound !o !heir o2n ar!i0ular a!oms. Ele0!ri0 0urren! 0anno! /lo2 /reely !hrough !hem. These ma!erials are <no2n as *.&0)"#'%&. Some !y i0al insula!ors are @ Poly-vinyl 0hloride A1 P;C8 %044$%8 /)"&#*38 6)"&&8 /'%3$)"*. ".+ !"6.$&*0! '7*+$.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

1raphical S)m&ols
6ell $a!!ery Resis!or ,n0andes0en! 5am Fuse #ne 3ay S2i!0h "mme!er 7ol!me!er #hmme!er

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

Electric Current 2low

Ele0!ri0 0urren! is !he movemen! o/ /ree ele0!rons. These ele0!rons have a nega!ive 0harge and are a!!ra0!ed !o a osi!ive 0harge. 3hen !he !erminals o/ a 0ell are 0onne0!ed via a 0ondu0!or as sho2n in Figure 41 /ree ele0!rons dri/! ur ose/ully in one dire0!ion only. This /lo2 o/ 0urren!1 is <no2n as D*%$3# C0%%$.# @ +6 A.

Electron

Conductor Electron 2low

C o n 5 e n t io n a l C u r r e n t 2 lo w

Cell

F*60%$ 4

!"e electrons 0lose !o !he osi!ive la!e o/ !he 0ell are a!!ra0!ed !o i!. Ea0h ele0!ron !ha!
en!ers !he osi!ive la!e 0auses an ele0!ron !o leave !he nega!ive la!e and move !hrough !he 0ondu0!or. The number o/ ele0!rons in !he 0ondu0!or remains 0ons!an!. The movemen! o/ ele0!rons !hrough a 0ondu0!or is /rom nega!ive !o osi!ive. 5ong be/ore !his !heory 2as dis0overed1 i! 2as !hough! !ha! 0urren! /lo2ed /rom /'&*#*-$ #' .$6"#*-$. This dire0!ion o/ 0urren! /lo2 is 0alled 3'.-$.#*'.") 30%%$.# ()'1. See Figure &.

E le c t r o n

4
F*60%$ 5

2 lo w

E le c t r o n 2 lo w f r o m 4 t o 3

C o n 5 e n t io n a l C u r r e n t 2 lo w f r o m 3 t o 4

This movemen! o/ ele0!rons !hrough a 0ondu0!or is <no2n as an $)$3#%*3 30%%$.# and is measured in A!/$%$&.

1)

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

!"e mpere
The symbol /or 0urren! /lo2 is I. The A!/$%$ @ "m A1 is !he uni! o/ measuremen! /or 0urren! /lo2. W,$. .2< 6 101< $)$3#%'.& /"&& " 6*-$. /'*.# *. '.$ S$3'.+8 " 30%%$.# '( '.$ A!/$%$ *& &"*+ #' ()'1. See Figure '.

P o in t

7 -2 8 9 -9 9 9 -9 9 9 -9 9 9 -9 9 9 -9 9 9 E le c t r o n 2 lo w

3
C e ll

4
F*60%$

!"e %oulomb
This number o/ ele0!rons is e%0e !ionally large. " uni! 0alled !he C'0)'!4 is used !o re resen! !his /igure. A 3'0)'!4 *& #,$ 20".#*#5 = 3,"%6$ > '( $)$3#%*3*#58 1,*3, /"&&$& " /'*.# 1,$. " &#$"+5 30%%$.# '( 1 A!/$%$ ()'1& ('% '.$ S$3'.+. The symbol /or Duan!i!y o/ ele0!ri0i!y is Q. F'%!0)" 3here4 D , ! E E E

I 7 #

Duan!i!y o/ ele0!ri0i!y @ 6oulombs A 6urren! /lo2 in "m eres @ "m s A !he #ime /or 2hi0h 0urren! /lo2s1 measured in S$3'.+&.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

+or,ed #-amples
1. " 0urren! o/ 8.& "m s asses !hrough a oin! in a 0ir0ui! /or ) ;inu!es. 3ha! =uan!i!y o/ ele0!ri0i!y is !rans/erredF S')0#*'.9 D , ! D D E E E E E , 0 ! 8.& "m s ) ;inu!es 8.& 0 ) 0 '0 1530 C'0)'!4& E ) % '0 Se0onds

2. " 0urren! o/ 1.& "m s !rans/ers a 0harge o/ 1800 6oulombs. For 2ha! eriod o/ !ime did !he 0urren! /lo2F S')0#*'.9 D , D E E E , 0 ! 1.& 1800 "m s 6oulombs

To /ind !1 !he /ormula mus! be !rans/ormed. +ivide bo!h sides by ,. D G , D G , ! E , % ! GGG , ! D G , 1800 GG 1.& 1200 1200 GG '0 20 Se0onds ;inu!es M*.0#$&

E E

! ! ! !

E E E E

1&

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

).

3ha! 0urren! 2ill /lo2 in a 0ir0ui! i/ &40 6oulombs is !rans/erred in 2 ;inu!esF S')0#*'.9 D D ! E E E , 0 ! &40 6oulombs 2 ;inu!es E 2 % '0 Se0onds

To /ind ,1 !he /ormula mus! be !rans/ormed. +ivide bo!h sides by !. D G ! D G ! , E , % ! GGG ! , D G ! &40 GGG 2 % '0 4.5 A!/&

, ,

E E

Sample .uestions
1. " 0urren! o/ 1& "m s /lo2s /or ) ;inu!es. 3ha! 0harge is !rans/erredF 2. For ho2 long mus! a 0urren! o/ ) "m s /lo2 so as !o !rans/er a 0harge o/ 240 6oulombsF ). 3ha! 0urren! mus! /lo2 i/ 100 6oulombs is !o be !rans/erred in & Se0ondsF

1'

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

The Electrical Circuit

For 0on!inuous 0urren! /lo21 2e mus! be a 3'!/)$#$ 0ir0ui!. ,/ !he 0ir0ui! is bro<en1 by o ening a s2i!0h /or e%am le1 ele0!ron movemen! and !here/ore !he 0urren! 2ill s!o immedia!ely. To 0ause a 0urren! !o /lo2 !hrough a 0ir0ui!1 a driving /or0e is re=uired1 >us! as a 0ir0ula!ing um is re=uired !o drive 2a!er around a 0en!ral hea!ing sys!em. See Figure (.
%adiator

Pump

:aterPressure or ;ri5in* 2orce

2low

F*60%$ 7 This driving /or0e is !he $le0!ro!o!ive (or0e @ abbrevia!ed !o E;F A . ,! is !he energy1 2hi0h 0auses 0urren! !o /lo2 !hrough a 0ir0ui!. Ea0h !ime an ele0!ron asses !hrough !he sour0e o/ E;F1 more energy is rovided !o <ee i! moving. See Figure 8.

circuit must "ave:

1. " sour0e o/ su ly @ E;F A. 2. " load @ 5am A. ). 6onne0!ing 0ables @ 6ondu0!ors A.

F*60%$ <.

1(

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

1.

The &'0%3$ '( &0//)5 is al2ays asso0ia!ed 2i!h energy 0onversion. @aA Henera!or @ 0onver!s me0hani0al energy !o ele0!ri0al energy A @bA 6ell or $a!!ery @ 0onver!s 0hemi0al energy !o ele0!ri0al energy A The sour0e o/ su ly 2ill rovide ressure 0alled E)$3#%'!'#*-$ F'%3$ or ;')#"6$. The symbol /or vol!age is U.

2. T,$ )'"+ is any devi0e !ha! is la0ed in !he ele0!ri0al 0ir0ui! !ha! rodu0es an $(($3# 2hen an ele0!ri0 0urren! /lo2s !hrough i!. 3hen an ele0!ri0 0urren! /lo2s !hrough an in0andes0en! lam 1 !he lam gives o// ligh! /rom hea!. ). T,$ 3'..$3#*.6 )$"+& or 0ables 0om le!e !he 0ir0ui!. The 0able 0onsis!s o/ !he 0ondu0!or !o 0arry !he 0urren! and insula!ion !o reven! lea<age. " 2a!er i e mus! have a bore !o 0arry !he 2a!er and !he i e ma!erial @ e.g. 0o er A !o reven! lea<age.

%ircuit nalog/
The sim les! analogy o/ an ele0!ri0 0ir0ui! is !o 0onsider a hose i e 0onne0!ed !o a !a . The ra!e o/ /lo2 o/ 2a!er /rom !he end o/ !he hose i e 2ill de end u on4 1. The 2a!er ressure a! !he !a . 2. The diame!er o/ !he hose i e ). The res!ri0!ion I resis!an0e o/ !he inner 2alls o/ !he hose i e. 4. The degree o/ any bends or <in<s in !he hose i e. ,/ !here are many res!ri0!ions1 !he 2a!er 2ill /lo2 ou! o/ !he hose i e a! a redu0ed ra!e. See Figure B.

Off

On

Pressure

%ate of 2low

<in= or %educed Pipe Si>e ? Opposition or %estriction

F*60%$ @.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

,n mu0h !he same 2ay1 0urren! /lo2s !hrough 0ondu0!ors by means o/ ele0!ri0 ressure rovided by a ba!!ery or genera!ing sour0e. This sour0e o/ ele0!ri0 ressure1 $)$3#%'!'#*-$ ('%3$ @ E;F A1 rovides !he energy re=uired !o ush 0urren! !hrough !he 0ir0ui!. ,! 0an be re/erred !o as !he &0//)5 -')#"6$. Every 0ir0ui! o//ers some o osi!ion or res!ri0!ion !o 0urren! /lo21 2hi0h is 0alled 0ir0ui! %$&*&#".3$. The uni! o/ resis!an0e is !he O,!1 symbol 8 ronoun0ed O!$6". "! !his s!age1 0ondu0!or resis!an0e is ignored and !he )'"+ %$&*&#".3$ is !rea!ed as !he !o!al o osi!ion !o 0urren! /lo2. For a s!able su ly vol!age1 !he 30%%$.# @ , A 2hi0h /lo2s1 is de!ermined by %$&*&#".3$ @ R A o/ !he 0ir0ui!. There 2ill be a -')#"6$ +%'/ a0ross di//eren! ar!s o/ !he 0ir0ui! and !his is 0alled P'#$.#*") D*(($%$.3$ @ P+ A.

See Figure 101

F*60%$ 10 *nli<e !he hose i e analogy1 !he ele0!ri0 0ir0ui! re=uires a 9go: and 9re!urn: 0ondu0!or !o /orm a 0losed loo or 0om le!e 0ir0ui!. These 0ondu0!ors mus! o//er a lo2 resis!an0e a!h !o !he /lo2 o/ 0urren!. ;os! me!alli0 0ondu0!ors sa!is/y !his re=uiremen!.

1B

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

Ohms Law
Heorge #hm dis0overed !he rela!ionshi be!2een1 0urren! /lo2ing in a 0ir0ui! and !he ressure a lied a0ross !ha! 0ir0ui!. This be0ame <no2n as O,!& L"1.

O,!& L"1 &#"#$& #,"# #,$ 30%%$.# = I > ()'1*.6 #,%'06, " 3*%30*# *& +*%$3#)5 /%'/'%#*'.") #' #,$ /'#$.#*") +*(($%$.3$ = U >8 "3%'&& #,"# 3*%30*#8 ".+ *.-$%&$)5 /%'/'%#*'.") #' #,$ %$&*&#".3$ = R >8 '( #,"# 3*%30*#8 /%'-*+$+ #,$ #$!/$%"#0%$ %$!"*.& 3'.&#".#. , E * G

To /ind U1 !rans ose !he /ormula by mul!i lying bo!h sides o/ !he e=ua!ion by R. * G R * % R GGG R * % R GGG R *

, % R E

, % R E , % R E or4

, % R

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

To /ind R1 divide bo!h sides by , as /ollo2s4 * * G , U A I E E , % R , % R GG , R

or

U A I

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

!"e Magic !riangle

# ' %

.o2 0onsider any 0ir0ui! in 2hi0h you <no2 !he values o/ any !2o o/ !he !hree /a0!ors - vol!age1 0urren! and resis!an0e - and you 2an! !o /ind !he !hird. The rule /or 2or<ing !he 9;agi0 Triangle: !o give !he 0orre0! /ormula is as /ollo2s4 Pla0e your !humb over !he le!!er in !he !riangle 2hose value you 2an! !o <no2 - and !he /ormula /or 0al0ula!ing !ha! value is given by !he !2o remaining le!!ers.

# ? # ?

'

' ?

# %

% ?

# '

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

!o %onfirm O"m2s La$

E7/$%*!$.# Re/er !o Figure 11. ,n !his arrangemen! !he resis!or value is <e ! 0ons!an! 2hils! !he vol!age is in0reased in s!e s o/ !2o vol!s and 0urren! readings are !a<en.

I. #,*& C*%30*# #,$ R$&*&#".3$ *& C'.&#".# F*60%$ 11. The /ollo2ing resul!s 2ere ob!ained /rom !he e% erimen! and lo!!ed in gra h /orm as sho2n belo2.
1olta'e 2 4 . / 1# E 2 2 2 2 2 , #.#2 #.#4 #.#. #.#/ #.1# 0 0 0 0 0 0 R 1## 1## 1## 1## 1##

"9 . 8 A 7 0 $ / 2 "
!9 " !9 2 !9 / !9 $ !9 0 !9 7 !9 A !9 8 !9 . !" 9

@ o lt a * e

Am ps 2i*ure "2 The above gra h and e% erimen! illus!ra!es1 !ha! 0urren! /lo2 in0reases ro or!ionally as !he a lied vol!age is in0reased.

2)

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

+or,ed #-amples
1. "n ele0!ri0al lam used on a 2)0 7ol! su ly !a<es a 0urren! o/ 0.42 "m s. 3ha! is !he resis!an0e o/ !he lam F S')0#*'.9 R * , R R E E E E E * G , 2)0 7ol!s 0.42 "m s 2)0 GG 0.42 547 O,!& @ Co! resis!an0e A

1. "n immersion hea!er 0onne0!ed !o a 2)0 7ol!s su ly !a<es a 0urren! o/ 1).& "m s. 6al0ula!e !he resis!an0e o/ !he elemen!. S')0#*'.9 R * , R R E E E E E

* G , 2)0 7ol!s 1).& "m s 2)0 GG 1).& 17 O,!&

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

"n ele0!ri0 hea!er has a resis!an0e o/ 2) and is 0onne0!ed !o a 2)0 7ol!s su ly. 6al0ula!e !he 0urren! !he hea!er 2ill !a<e. * G R 2)0 7ol!s 2) #hms 2)0 GG 2) 10 A!/&

S')0#*'.9

, * R , ,

E E E E E

2. "n ele0!ri0al 0ir0ui! has a resis!an0e o/ 2) and !a<es a 0urren! o/ & "m s. 6al0ula!e !he vol!age a lied !o !he 0ir0ui!. S')0#*'.9 * , R * * E E E E E , 0 R & "m s 2) #hms & % 2) 115 ;')#&

From !he revious e%er0ises i! 2ill be no!i0ed !ha! !he amoun! o/ 0urren! !ha! /lo2s in a 0ir0ui! is dire0!ly ro or!ional !o !he vol!age and inversely ro or!ional !o !he resis!an0e. 3i!h a /airly 0ons!an! su ly o/ 2)0 7ol!s1 !he load or resis!an0e o/ !he 0ir0ui! 2ill de!ermine !he amoun! o/ 0urren! !ha! 2ill /lo2.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

Electrical Circuit %eBuirements

%ircuit 'rotection
#ne o/ !he basi0 re=uiremen!s !ha! a 0ir0ui! mus! have is over0urren! ro!e0!ion. This is essen!ial /or ro!e0!ion o/ !he 0ables and a00essories in !he 0ir0ui!. " (0&$ or 3*%30*# 4%$"B$% is used !o rovide !his ro!e0!ion. ,! is /i!!ed as 0lose !o !he origin o/ !he 0ir0ui! as ossible !o 0u! o// !he su ly i/ !oo mu0h 0urren! /lo2s in !he 0ir0ui!. This is 0alled 0ir0ui! ro!e0!ion. See Figure 1).

%ircuit %ontrol
"no!her basi0 re=uiremen! is !ha! !he 0ir0ui! 0an be 0on!rolled. " &1*#3, mus! be /i!!ed !o !urn !he su ly '. or '((. This is 0alled 0ir0ui! 0on!rol. The rin0i les o/ 0ir0ui! ro!e0!ion and 0ir0ui! 0on!rol are illus!ra!ed in Figure 1). Circuit Control

Loa d %esistor

Circ uit Prot ectio n

Switch 2use

Source of suppl)

Cell

F*60%$ 13.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

Basic Circuits Concepts

Open %ircuit
"n o en 0ir0ui! e%is!s1 2hen !here is a brea< in a 0ir0ui!. This brea< resul!s in an e%!remely high resis!an0e in !he 0ir0ui!. This 2ill s!o 0urren! /lo2. This value o/ e%!remely high resis!an0e is re/erred !o as in/ini!y. ,! is deno!ed by !he symbol . E%am les4 See Figure 14. 1. 2. ). 4. " s2i!0h is o en. " /use is blo2n or a 0ir0ui! brea<er is !ri ed. " hysi0al brea< in !he resis!or or elemen!. " 0onne0!ing 0able is bro<en.

" 2

F*60%$ 14. "ssume a su ly o/ 2)0 7ol!s and !he 0ir0ui! resis!an0e o/ 11000 #hms. From #hm8s 5a2 , E * G R 2)0 GG 11000 0.23 A!/&

, ,

E E

"ssume a su ly o/ 2)0 7ol!s and !he 0ir0ui! resis!an0e o/ 11000.000 #hms. From #hm8s 5a2 , E * G R 2)0 GGGG 110001000 0.00023 A!/&

, ,

E E

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

S"ort %ircuit
6urren! 2ill /lo2 !hrough !he a!h o/ leas! resis!an0e or o osi!ion in a 0ir0ui!. " shor! 0ir0ui! o00urs 2hen !he resis!an0e or o osi!ion in a 0ir0ui! is very lo2. E%am les4 See Figures 1&1 1&" and 1&$. 1. The 9load: is shor!ed ou! and !he 0urren! !a<es !he a!h o/ leas! resis!an0e.

S h o r t C ir c u it 2 / 9 @ S u p p l)

F*60%$ 15. 2. The 0onne0!ing 0ables are damaged rior !o or a/!er !he 2iring ro0ess.

2 / 9 @ S u p p l)

S h o r t C ir c u it

F*60%$ 15A. ). The 0onne0!ing 0ables in !he 0ir0ui! are 0onne0!ed !oge!her during !he 2iring ro0ess.

2 / 9 @ S u p p l)

S h o r t C ir c u it

F*60%$ 15B. " shor! 0ir0ui! usually resul!s in a dangerously high 0urren! /lo2ing. " /use or 0ir0ui! brea<er is !he delibera!e 92ea< lin<: in a 0ir0ui!. Ei!her 2ill o en !he 0ir0ui! 2hen !oo mu0h 0urren! /lo2s.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

"ssume a su ly o/ 2)0 7ol!s and !he 0ir0ui! resis!an0e o/ 1 #hm. From #hm8s 5a2 , E * G R 2)0 GG 1 230 A!/&

, ,

E E

"ssume a su ly o/ 2)0 7ol!s and !he 0ir0ui! resis!an0e o/ 0.1 #hm. From #hm8s 5a2 , E * G R 2)0 GG 0.1 2300 A!/&

, ,

E E

"ssume a su ly o/ 2)0 7ol!s and !he 0ir0ui! resis!an0e o/ 0.01 #hm. From #hm8s 5a2 , E * G R 2)0 GG 0.01 238000 A!/&

, ,

E E

2B

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

The Effects of an Electric Current

3hen an ele0!ri0 0urren! /lo2s in a 0ir0ui! i! 0an have one or more o/ !he /ollo2ing e//e0!s4 1. 3eatin' E44ect 2. -a'netic E44ect ,. C%e5ical E44ect

!"e 3eating #ffect

The movemen! o/ ele0!rons in a 0ir0ui!1 2hi0h is !he /lo2 o/ an ele0!ri0 0urren!1 0auses an in0rease in !he !em era!ure o/ !he load resis!an0e. The huge number o/ ele0!rons being ushed !hrough !he load resis!an0e1 resul!s in high /ri0!ion and 0ollision o/ !hese ele0!rons. This genera!es hea!. The amoun! o/ hea! genera!ed de ends u on !he !y e and dimensions o/ !he load resis!an0e 2ire and !he value o/ 0urren! /lo2ing. $y 0hanging !hese variables1 a leng!h o/ resis!an0e 2ire may be o era!ed a! di//eren! !em era!ures !o give di//eren! e//e0!s1 e.g. an ordinary ligh! bulb or an ele0!ri0 hea!er. See Figure 1'.

Switch 2use MCB Cell Load %esistance

F*60%$ 1 .

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

!"e Magnetic #ffect

3henever a 0urren! /lo2s in a 0ondu0!or a magne!i0 /ield is se! u around !ha! 0ondu0!or. See Figure 1( belo2. Switch ;irection of Current 2low

Ma*netic field lines

F*60%$ 17. This magne!i0 /ield in0reases in s!reng!h i/ !he 0urren! is in0reased and 0olla ses i/ !he 0urren! is s2i!0hed o//. " 90urren! 0arrying 0ondu0!or:1 2ound in !he /orm o/ a solenoid @ 0oil A1 rodu0es a magne!i0 /ield very similar !o !ha! o/ a ermanen! magne!1 bu! has !he advan!age in !ha! i! 0an be s2i!0hed on or o// by any s2i!0h 0on!rolling !he 0ir0ui! 0urren!. The magne!i0 e//e0! o/ an ele0!ri0 0urren! is !he rin0i le u on 2hi0h ele0!ri0 bells1 relays1 moving 0oil ins!rumen!s1 mo!ors and genera!ors 2or<. The s!reng!h o/ !he magne!i0 /ield is dire0!ly ro or!ional !o !he 0urren! in !he 0ir0ui!. The 90lam on: !y e amme!er measures !he s!reng!h o/ !he magne!i0 /ield and rodu0es a reading in "m s.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

!"e %"emical #ffect

3hen an ele0!ri0 0urren! /lo2s !hrough an ele0!roly!e @ 0ondu0!ing li=uid I as!e A1 !his ele0!roly!e is se ara!ed in!o 0hemi0al ar!s. The !2o 0ondu0!ors1 2hi0h ma<e 0on!a0! 2i!h !he ele0!roly!e1 are 0alled !he anode @ osi!ive la!e A and !he 0a!hode @ nega!ive la!e A. "n anode or 0a!hode o/ dissimilar me!als la0ed in an ele0!roly!e 0an rea0! 0hemi0ally and rodu0e an E;F. 3hen a load is 0onne0!ed a0ross !he anode and 0a!hode1 a 0urren! 2ill /lo2 in !he 0ir0ui!. The 0hemi0al e//e0! o/ an ele0!ri0 0urren! is !he rin0i le u on 2hi0h ele0!ri0 0ells o era!e. See Figure 18.

% 3 4

Anode

C a th o d e L iB u id
F*60%$ 1<.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

S' #nits
" uni! is 2ha! 2e use !o indi0a!e !he measuremen! o/ a =uan!i!y. For e%am le1 !he uni! o/ 0urren! is !he A!/$%$. The uni! o/ leng!h 0ould be !he I.3, or !he M$#%$. Co2ever1 !he ;e!re is !he S, uni! o/ leng!h. ,n order !ha! 2e all 2or< !o a 0ommon s!andard1 an in!erna!ional sys!em is used. ,! is <no2n as !he S, sys!em @ Sys!em ,n!erna!ional A. This sys!em is used !hroughou! !he 0ourse. " number o/ re/i%es 2ill be used e.g. mi0roam s and milliam s1 millivol!s and <ilovol!s1 <ilohms and megohms.

Metric 'refi-es
6re4i0 me*aC =iloC %ecto deca unity deci centi milliC microC nano "ico Sy5bol M = % da d c m n " -ulti"lyin' Factor " 999 999 " 999 1## 1# 1 #.1 #.#1 9!99" 9!999 99" #.### ### ##1 #.### ### ### ##1 6ower 7nde0 D"978 D"9/E 91#28 91#18 91##8 91#-18 91#-28 D"94/E D"947E 91#-:8 91#-128

; denotes 4re<uently used "re4i0es in t%e Electrical Trade.

#-amples
To 0onver! am s !o milliam s mul!i ly by 11000 @10)A To 0onver! am s !o mi0roam s mul!i ly by 110001000 @10'A To 0onver! milliam s !o am s mul!i ly by 0.001 @10-)A To 0onver! mi0roam s !o milliam s mul!i ly by 0.001 @10-)A

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

#-amples
6onver! !he /ollo2ing4 1. 2. ). 4. &. '. (. 8. 1)10001000 #hms &001000 #hms 0.& 7ol!s 100 7ol!s 1&1000 7ol!s 0.4 <ilovol!s '00 milliam s 0.0) "m s !o !o !o !o !o !o !o !o megohms megohms millivol!s millivol!s <ilovol!s 7ol!s "m s milliam s

Solutions
1. 110001000 #hms 1)10001000 #hms &001000 #hms 1 7ol! 0.& 7ol!s 100 7ol!s 11000 7ol!s 1&1000 7ol!s 1 <ilovol! 0.4 <ilovol!s 11000 milliam s '00 milliam s 1 "m 0.1 "m s 0.01 "m s 0.0) "m s E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E 1 megohm 1) megohms 0.& megohms 1000 millivol!s E &00 millivol!s 1001000 millivol!s 1 <ilovol! 1& <ilovol!s 11000 7ol!s 400 7ol!s 1 "m 0.' "m s 11000 milliam s 100 milliam s 10 milliam s )0 milliam s E E E 1; 1); 0.&;

2. ). 4. &. '. (. 8.

1000m7 E &00m7 E E E E E E E E E E E 1001000m7 1<7 1&<7 10007 4007 1" 0.'" 1000m" 100m" 10m" )0m"

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

Electrical Measurin* 'nstruments

!"e mmeter
"n "!!$#$% is a devi0e used !o measure 0urren! /lo2ing !hrough a 0ir0ui! or ar! o/ a 0ir0ui!. ,! indi0a!es1 in !erms o/ am eres1 !he number o/ 0oulombs assing a given oin! in a 0ir0ui!1 in one se0ond. The amme!er sho2n in Figure 1 has a Full S0ale De/le0!ion @ FS+ A o/ 40".

F*60%$ 1@. The amme!er mus! be hysi0ally 0onne0!ed in!o !he 0ir0ui!. ,! 0an !hen measure all !he ele0!rons assing !hrough i!. The amme!er in Figure 20 is said !o be *. &$%*$& 2i!h !he resis!or or load. 3

A!!$#$% 3 4 R$&*&#'% '% L'"+

F*60%$ 20. N'#$9 T,$ "!!$#$% !"5 4$ +"!"6$+ *( *.3'%%$3#)5 3'..$3#$+. The /'&*#*-$ and .$6"#*-$ !erminals o/ a +*%$3# 30%%$.# @ +6 A me!er mus! be 0onne0!ed 0orre0!ly as sho2n in Figure 2. This is re/erred !o as 0orre0! /')"%*#5. ,! allo2s !he me!er !o read 0/C&3")$. Reversed olari!y 0auses !he me!er !o read +'1. &3")$. This /or0es !he oin!er agains! !he s!o a! !he le/!1 2hi0h may damage !he me!er.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

Meter Range and Selection

The 0urren! re=uired !o be measured should be es!ima!ed. Sele0! a me!er having a FS+ a good deal higher !han !he es!ima!ed 0urren!. "ny 0urren! value in e%0ess o/ !he FS+ o/ !he me!er 2ill no! only /ail !o regis!er ro erly on !he s0ale1 bu! 2ill robably 0ause &$%*'0& +"!"6$ !o !he me!er. #n !he o!her hand1 any 0urren! value very lo2 in rela!ion !o !he FS+ 2ill no! 0ause !he oin!er !o move. "n a00ura!e reading 0anno! be ob!ained in !his si!ua!ion. The use/ul range o/ any me!er never1 in /a0!1 e%!ends righ! do2n !o ?ero on i!s s0ale. ,! only goes do2n !o !he oin! a! 2hi0h readings 0an be dis!inguished /rom ?ero 2i!h reasonable a00ura0y.

ctivit/
" ren!i0es !o ins!all an amme!er in!o a 0ir0ui! as sho2n in Figure 21 and measure !he 0urren!.

F*60%$ 21.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

!"e 4oltmeter
" vol!me!er measures ele0!romo!ive /or0e @ E;F A or o!en!ial di//eren0e @ P+ A. ,! mus! be 0onne0!ed "3%'&& !he su ly or load resis!an0e in order !o re0ord !he vol!age. Tha! is1 i! mus! be 0onne0!ed in /"%"))$) 2i!h !he 0om onen! as in Figure 22.

F*60%$ 22. N'#$9 T,$ -')#!$#$% !"5 4$ +"!"6$+ *( *.3'%%$3#)5 3'..$3#$+. " +6 vol!me!er @ analogue !y e A mus! be 0onne0!ed 2i!h !he 0orre0! olari!y /or !he me!er !o read u s0ale. 3hen sele0!ing a me!er !o measure vol!age1 0hoose one having a ma%imum range a good deal higher !han !he value o/ any vol!age you e% e0! !o be measuring. The reason /or !his is !ha! a vol!age in e%0ess o/ !he ma%imum ra!ed value o/ !he me!er 2ill no! only /ail !o regis!er ro erly on !he s0ale1 bu! 2ill robably 0ause &$%*'0& +"!"6$ !o !he me!er.

ctivit/
;easure !he vol!age a! !he su ly !erminals and !he o!en!ial di//eren0e a0ross !he load o/ !he 0ir0ui! sho2n in Figure 2).

F*60%$ 23.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

!"e O"mmeter
"n ohmme!er is used !o 0he0< !he ele0!ri0al 0on!inui!y o/ 0om onen!s and !o measure !heir resis!an0e. ,! is o2ered by i!s o2n in!ernal ba!!ery. " !y i0al ohmme!er is de i0!ed in Figure 24. $e/ore 0onne0!ing an ohmme!er in 0ir0ui! i! is im or!an! !o ensure !ha!4 1. There is no vol!age a0ross !he 0om onen! @ su ly dis0onne0!ed A. 2. The 0om onen! !o be measured is no! 0onne0!ed in arallel 2i!h any o!her 0om onen!. ). The ins!rumen! has been se! !o in/ini!y 2i!h !he leads se ara!ed. 4. The ins!rumen! has been se! !o Jero #hms 2i!h !he leads 0onne0!ed !oge!her.
Scale

'nfinit) AdFustment Scale Multiplier Switch Gero Ohms AdFustment

F*60%$ 24. ;easuremen!s are !a<en by 0onne0!ing !he me!er a0ross !he un<no2n resis!or as sho2n in Figure (2&. ,! is im or!an! !o sele0! !he mos! sui!able s0ale /or !he resis!an0e under !es!. The 0urren! /lo2ing !hrough !he un<no2n resis!an0e 2ill 0ause !he oin!er !o de/le0!. This de/le0!ion1 2hen mul!i lied by !he s0ale /a0!or @ range sele0!ion s2i!0h se!!ing A1 1*)) 6*-$ #,$ -")0$ '( #,$ %$&*&#".3$ 4$*.6 !$"&0%$+. The ohmme!er s0ale is normally .'.C)*.$"% 2i!h ?ero on !he o osi!e side o/ !he s0ale !o !ha! used /or vol!age and 0urren! measuremen!.

F*60%$ 25.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

!"e Multimeter
" mul!ime!er is an ins!rumen! !ha! 0an be &$# or /%'6%"!!$+ !o measure vol!age1 0urren! or resis!an0e. ;os! modern mul!ime!ers have a number o/ o!her /un0!ions su0h as diode 0he0<ing and 0a a0i!an0e measuremen!. These ins!rumen!s 0an measure +ire0! 6urren! @ +6 A or "l!erna!ing 6urren! @ "6 A over several ranges. The main !y es are4 ;')#CO,!CM*))*C"!!$#$% = ;OM > ".+ D*6*#") M0)#*!$#$% = DMM >

%omparison of nalogue and Digital Multimeters

Analo*ue T)pe Features= !nalo'ue *is"lay -anual Ran'e Settin' ;i*ital T)pe Features= *i'ital *is"lay Ran'e Settin' !uto5atic > -anual

,! is im or!an! !ha! !he ins!ru0!ion manual su lied 2i!h a me!er is s!udied rior !o o era!ion o/ !he me!er. These manuals normally 0on!ain 2arnings and in/orma!ion1 2hi0h mus! be /ollo2ed !o ensure sa/e o era!ion and re!ain !he me!er in a sa/e 0ondi!ion.

Meter Operating Suggestions

1. Ensure !ha! !he ins!rumen! is &$# !o measure !he desired uni! e.g. 7ol!s !o measure vol!age. 2. Se! !he range s2i!0h !o !he ro er /'&*#*'. be/ore ma<ing any measuremen!. ). Ensure !he ins!rumen! !es! leads are 0onne0!ed !o !he a ro ria!e D"3B &'3B$#&. 3hen !he vol!age1 0urren! or resis!an0e !o be measured is no! <no2n1 al2ays s!ar! 2i!h !he ,*6,$&# %".6$ (*%&# and 2or< your 2ay do2n !o a lo2er range !ha! gives an a00ura!e reading. 4. "l2ays observe 0orre0! !es! lead measuremen!s. olari!y 2hen ma<ing +6 -')#"6$ ".+ 30%%$.#

&. For mos! a00ura!e readings1 loo< a! !he s0ale /rom a osi!ion 2here !he oin!er and i!s re/le0!ion on !he mirror 0ome !oge!her !o avoid /"%"))"7 $%%'%. 3herever ossible1 use a range se!!ing1 2hi0h resul!s in a reading in !he 0en!re 1I)rd o/ !he me!er s0ale. '. Se! !he range sele0!or s2i!0h !o !he K O((E osi!ion 2hen !he !es!er is no! in use or during !ransi!. (. Remove !he ba!!ery be/ore &#'%*.6 !he me!er /or a long eriod o/ !ime. 8. Hrea! 0are mus! be !a<en !o ensure !ha! !he ins!rumen! range se!!ing is .'# $73$$+$+ 2hen measuring a vol!age or 0urren!.

)B

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

%esistors
"ll ma!erials have some resis!an0e !o !he /lo2 o/ an ele0!ri0 0urren!. ,n general1 !he !erm %$&*&#'% des0ribes a 0ondu0!or s e0ially 0hosen /or i!s resis!ive ro er!ies. Resis!ors are !he mos! 0ommonly used ele0!roni0 0om onen!s. They are made in a varie!y o/ 2ays !o sui! ar!i0ular !y es o/ a li0a!ion. They are usually manu/a0!ured as ei!her 0arbon 0om osi!ion or 0arbon /ilm. ,n bo!h 0ases !he base resis!ive ma!erial is 0arbon. The general a earan0e is o/ a small 0ylinder 2i!h leads ro!ruding /rom ea0h end.

Resistor %olour %ode

The -")0$ o/ !he resis!or and i!s #')$%".3$ may be mar<ed on !he body o/ !he 0om onen!. This may be done ei!her by dire0! numeri0al indi0a!ion or by using a &#".+"%+ 3')'0% 3'+$. The 3')'0%$+ 4".+& are lo0a!ed on !he 0om onen! !o2ards one end. ,/ !he resis!or is !urned so !ha! !his end is !o2ards !he le/!1 !hen !he bands are read /rom le/! !o righ!1 See Figure 2'.

2irst Band

Second Third Band Band F*60%$ 2 .

2ourth Band

#-planation of %olour %oding (ands 5 6 (and Resistors 7

1s! $and 6olour 2nd $and 6olour )rd $and 6olour 4!h $and 6olour 1s! +igi! 2nd +igi! ;ul!i lier @ in e//e0! !he number o/ ?eros A Toleran0e

Resistor %olour %ode 4alues

$la0< $ro2n Red #range Lello2 Hreen $lue 7iole! Hrey 3hi!e 0 1 2 ) 4 & ' ( 8 B

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

Resistor !olerance
The /our!h resis!or 0olour band indi0a!es !he resis!or !oleran0e. This is 0ommonly 6')+ or &*)-$%1 indi0a!ing a !oleran0e o/ &M or 10M res e0!ively. Some!imes !he 0oloured bands are no! 0learly orien!ed !o2ards one end. ,n !his 0ase1 /irs! iden!i/y !he !oleran0e band and !urn !he resis!or so !ha! !his is !o !he righ!. Then read !he 0olour 0ode as des0ribed belo2. The !oleran0e band indi0a!es !he ma%imum !oleran0e varia!ion in !he de0lared value o/ resis!an0e. Thus a 100 resis!or 2i!h a &M !oleran0e 2ill have a value o/ some2here be!2een B& and 10& 1 sin0e &M o/ 100 is & . ,/ no /our!h band e%is!s !his indi0a!es a !oleran0e o/ N I - 20M. T')$%".3$ *.+*3"#'%& Hold &M Silver 10M .o band 20M

Reading a resistor colour code1

Blue 1re) %ed F*60%$ 27.

1old

,/ a resis!or has 0olour 0ode bands o/ blue1 grey1 red1 gold1 2ha! is i!s ohmi0 valueF S')0#*'.9 $lue Hrey Red Hold E E E E ' 8 2 &M 1s! +igi! 2nd +igi! .umber o/ ?eros Toleran0e

Resis!or value is 8<00 2i!h a 5F #')$%".3$ This resis!or 2ill have an ohmi0 value be!2een '14'0 and (1140 ohms.

ctivit/
Pra0!i0e reading !he 0olour 0ode o/ di//eren! values o/ resis!ors and 0al0ula!e !he !oleran0e range.

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

Resistor %olour %ode Mnemonic Better Be %i'%t Or Iour 1reat Bi' @enture 1oes :ron' Resistor 'referred 4alues
,! is di//i0ul! !o manu/a0!ure small ele0!roni0 resis!ors !o e%a0! values by mass rodu0!ion me!hods. This is no! a disadvan!age as in mos! ele0!roni0 0ir0ui!s !he values o/ !he resis!ors is .'# 3%*#*3"). ;anu/a0!urers rodu0e a limi!ed range o/ PREFERRED resis!an0e values ra!her !han an over2helming number o/ individual resis!an0e values. There/ore1 in ele0!roni0s 2e use !he re/erred value 3)'&$&# #' #,$ "3#0") -")0$ %$20*%$+. " resis!or 2i!h a re/erred value o/ 100 and a 10M !oleran0e 0ould a0!ually have any value be!2een B0 and 110 . The ne%! larges! re/erred value1 2hi0h 2ould give !he ma%imum ossible range o/ resis!an0e values 2i!hou! !oo mu0h overla 1 2ould be 120 . This 0ould have any value be!2een 108 and 1)2 . Table 1 indi0a!es !he re/erred values be!2een 10 and 82 1 bu! !he )"%6$% -")0$&1 2hi0h are manu/a0!ured1 0an be ob!ained by mul!i lying !hese re/erred values by a ("3#'% '( 10. Mnemonic to %emem&er the %esistor Colour CodeH

#-ample:
4( 1 4(0 1 41(00 1 4(1000 4(01000 @ 4( % 10 A @ 4(0 % 10 A @ 41(00 % 10 A @ 4(1000 % 10 A @ 4(01000 % 10 A E E E E E 4(0 41(00 4(1000 4(01000 41(001000 E E E E E 4(0R 4.(< 4(< 4(0< 4.(;

For a number o/ reasons !he de0imal oin! is no! used. Ta<e !he 4G7B resis!or1 !his may be 2ri!!en 4B7. The < is osi!ioned so !ha! i! indi0a!es 2here !he de0imal oin! should be. The R and M 0an be used in !he same manner as in !he e%am les belo2. E%am les4 18 2O( < )B < &O' ; 82 ; E E E E E 18R 2<( )B< &;' 82;

@21(00RA @)B1000RA @&1'001000RA @8210001000RA

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

#18 Series of 'referred 4alues

@ 10M Toleran0e A Rated 1alue in ?%5s 1# 12 1@ 1/ 22 2A ,, ,: 4A @. ./ /2 6ossible Ran'e o4 1alues in ?%5s :.# to 11.# 1#./ to 1,.2 1,.@ to 1..@ 1..2 to 1:./ 1:./ to 24.2 24., to 2:.A 2:.A to ,.., ,@.1 to 42.: 42., to @1.A @#.4 to .1.. .1.2 to A4./ A,./ to :#.2 and so on in mul!i les o/ 10 T"4)$ 1

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

'ndices
,! is very im or!an! !o unders!and 2ha! Indices are and ho2 !hey are used. 3i!hou! su0h <no2ledge1 0al0ula!ions and mani ula!ion o/ /ormulae are di//i0ul! and /rus!ra!ing. So1 2ha! are IndicesF 3ell1 !hey are erha s mos! easily e% lained by e%am le. ,/ 2e mul!i ly !2o iden!i0al numbers1 say 2 and 21 !he ans2er is1 0learly1 41 and !his ro0ess is usually e% ressed !hus4

2 2 = 4

Co2ever1 ano!her 2ay o/ e% ressing !he same 0ondi!ion is4

22 = 4
The u er 2 sim ly means !ha! !he lo2er 2 is mul!i lied by i!sel/. The u er 2 is <no2n as !he inde%. Some!imes !his si!ua!ion is re/erred !o as P!2o raised to the power of !2o8. So 2) means P!2o mul!i lied by i!sel/ three !imes8. i.e.

2 2 2 = 8
Do not be misled by !hin<ing !ha! 2) is 2 0 ) 24 E 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 E 1' @ not 2 0 4 E 8 A 242 E 24 0 24 E &(' @ not 24 0 2 E 48 A

#-amples:
)) E ) 0 ) 0 ) E 2( B2 E B 0 B E 81 4) E 4 0 4 0 4 E '4 10& E 10 0 10 0 10 0 10 0 10 E 1001000 " number by i!sel/1 say )1 has an invisible inde%1 11 bu! i! is no! sho2n. .o2 0onsider !his4 22 0 22 % 2 may be 2ri!!en as 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 % 21 or as 2&1 2hi0h means1 !ha! !he indi0es 2 and 2 or !he invisible inde% 1 have been added !oge!her. So !he rule is1 2hen mul!i lying li<e /igures1 add !he indi0es. E%am les4 4 0 42 E 41 0 42 E 4) E 4 0 4 0 4 2 .4 )2 0 )) E )& E ) 0 , 0 , 0 , 0 , 2 24, 10 0 10) E 104 E 10 0 1# 0 1# 0 1# 2 1#B###

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

Multiplication of *ndices
)2 L; 0 0 )) CN E 2 )& C-DN

R)L# 1

&%en 5ulti"lyin' "owers o4 t%e sa5e nu5ber add t%e indices

5e! us advan0e !o !he /ollo2ing si!ua!ion4 1 E 102 104 E 102 10 0 1# 0 1# 0 1# EEEEEEE 10 0 1#

10 0
4

is !he same as

6an0elling ou! !he 10s 3e ge! 10 0 10 E 102

10 0 1# 0 1# 0 1# EEEEEEEE 10 0 1#

2hi0h means !ha! !he indi0es have been subtracted i.e. 4 - 2. L; E L.

L;-.

R)L# 8

&%en di idin' "owers o4 t%e sa5e nu5berB su&tract t%e indices

Co2 abou! !his4 4 - 2 is ei!her 4 sub!ra0! 21 or 4 add -21 and remember1 !he addi!ion o/ indi0es is used 2i!h mul!i li0a!ion. So /rom !his 2e should see !ha! 10 4 divided by 102 is !he same as 104 mul!i lied by 10-2. So 1 E 102 is !he same as 10-2

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

#-amples:
1 E )4 E )-4 1 E 2' E 2-'

and 0onversely41 E 10-2 E 102

H$.3$ 1$ 3". &$$ #,"# *.+*3$& !"5 4$ !'-$+ "4'-$ '% 4$)'1 #,$ )*.$ /%'-*+*.6 #,$ &*6. *& 3,".6$+.

#-amples:
1. 10' 0 10( 0 10-) EEEEEE 104 0 102 1010 EE 10' 2. 104 0 10-' EEEE 1# E 1010 0 1#-. 2 101) 0 10-) EEEE 10' 104 E 101000 E

104 0 1#-. 0 1#-1

1 10 0 10
4 -(

E 10

-)

E 10)

1 EE 1000 E 0.001

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

#-amples
1. 3ha! is !he resis!an0e o/ a 0ir0ui! i/ !he vol!age a0ross i! is &0 <7 and a 0urren! o/ &00 m" is /lo2ingF Solu!ion4 * , E E &0 <7 &00 m"
R = * , &0 10) &00 10 ) &0 10 ' &00 &010001000 &00 &001000 &

E E

&0 % 10) 7ol!s &00 % 10-) "m s

R =

R =

R =

R =

R = 1001000 #hms

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Electrical Course Notes - Unit 2.1.4

2.

3ha! 0urren! 2ill /lo2 !hrough a 0ir0ui! i/ !he su ly vol!age is &0 <7 and !he 0ir0ui! resis!an0e is & megohmsF * R E E &0 <7 & ;
,= * R ) &0 10 ' & 10 &0 10 ) & &0 10 & 10 10 1 ) ) 10 '

Solu!ion4

E E

&0 % 10) 7ol!s & % 10' #hms

,=

,=

,=

,=

, = 0.01 "m s , =10 milliam s

3.

3ha! vol!age 2ill 0ause a 0urren! o/ &0 m" !o /lo2 !hrough a resis!an0e o/ 1 < F , R E E &0 m" 1 <
* = , R * = &0 10 ) 1 10) * = &0 7ol!s

Solu!ion4

E E

&0 % 10-) "m s 1 % 10) #hms

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