Erich N euwirth

Musical Temperaments
Springer-Verlag Wien GmbH
Univ.-Doz. Dr. Erich Neuwirth
Arbeitsgruppe Computergestiltzte Didaktik
Institut fiir Statistik, Operations Research und Computerverfahren
Wien, Qsterreich
Translated from German by Rita Steblin
AlI rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specificalIy those of
translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduction by photocopying
machines or similar means, and storage in data banks.
1997 Springer-Verlag Wien
Originally published by Springer-Verlag/Wien in 1997
Typesetting: Camera-ready by the author
Printing and binding: Adolf Holzhausens Nfg. GesmbH, A-I070 Wien
Graphic design: Ecke Bonk
Printed on acid-free and chlorine-free bleached paper
SPIN: 10634843
Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme
Mu"ical temperameut" / Erich Neuwirth. Transl. from the Gennan
by Rita Steblin. - Wien ; New York: Springer
Dt. Ausg. u.d.T.: Musikalische Stimmungen
ISBN 3-211-83040-5
Buch.1997
brosch.
CD-ROM. 1997
Additional material to this book can be downloaded from http://extras.springer.com.
ISBN 978-3-211-83040-6 ISBN 978-3-7091-6540-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-7091-6540-9
Musical Temperaments Preface. V
Preface
What you are now reading is the written version of an electronic
document that explains the mathematical principles for
different musical temperaments. The electronic version contains
many music examples that you can listen to while you are
working with this document at a computer. The written version
obviously cannot offer this possibility. It serves therefore merely
as a parallel study aid and guide and cannot replace actually
working with the electronic text.
Musical Temperaments Contents V II
Contents
Introduction and Fundamental Properties 1
Pitch and Frequency 1
Preliminary Remarks 1
Frequencies and Intervals 2
Tuning Systems and Frequencies 5
Musical Scales in Different Tunings 5
Pure Tuning 5
Intervals and Triads in Pure Tuning 12
Pythagorean Tuning 23
Intervals and Triads in Pythagorean Tuning 31
Meantone Tuning 34
Intervals and Triads in Meantone Tuning 39
Equal Temperament (Tuning) 42
Intervals and Triads in Equal Temperament (Tuning) 47
Summary 50
Appendices 53
Pictorial explanations 53
Tables of Frequencies and Intervals 54
Operating Instructions 62
Glossary 67
Musical Temperaments Introduction and Fundamental Properties 1
Introduction and Fundamental Properties
Pitch and Frequency
Preliminary Remarks
It is well known that tones consist of periodically recurring
phenomena, that is, beats repeating in a regular pattern.The
number of repetitions of beats per second is measured in Hertz:
440 Hertz mean 440 beats per second. This number is also
called the frequency of a beat. It is also known that a higher
frequency produces a higher pitch. A tone of 550 Hertz is higher
than a tone of 440 Hertz. The abbreviation for Hertz is Hz.
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
Let us now compare two tones, one of which doubles exactly the
frequency of the other. We will choose 264 Hz and 528 Hz.
We notice that both of these tones sound "equal." We also have
the feeling that we are hearing the same tone in different
"positions." This will be demonstrated more closely by a further
example. Consider the following three rows of numbers:
264
330
396
528
660
792
1056 2112
1320 2640
1584 3168
Each number within these three rows is the double of the
preceding number. However, the numbers in the second row are
not produced by doubling the numbers of the first row.
Listening to these tones gives us the feeling that each of these
three rows reproduces one tone only, at different heights, but
that each row respectively produces a different tone.
E. Neuwirth, Musical Temperaments
Springer-Verlag/Wien 1997
2 Introduction and Fundamental Properties Musical Temperaments
Ifwe proceed from a tone with a specific frequency, then the
value of this frequency doubled will correspond with - musically
speaking - the same tone, only an octave higher.
We will learn more about the basic properties of this
phenomenon in the section Frequencies and Intervals.
Frequencies and Intervals
Now we are going to experiment a little with series oftones. For
this purpose let us construct the following row of tones:
The first tone has a frequency of 264 Hz (we will explain later
why we are beginning with this frequency). The second tone has
this frequency multiplied by two, that is 528 Hz. The third tone
has this frequency multiplied by three, that is 792 Hz, etc. We
will take all multiples of 264 Hz up to the eightfold frequency.
The series of tones, which we will hear immediately, has the
following frequencies:
1*264, 2*264, 3*264, 4*264, 5*264, 6*264, 7*264, 8*264
264, 528, 792, 1056, 1320, 1584, 1848, 2112
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
By listening to this succession of tones we notice that intervals
are formed that are common to classical western music. For
example, the first and second tones are separated by the
distance of an octave. The second and third tones form a fifth
and the third and fourth tones form a fourth. The fourth and
fifth tones form a major third and the fifth and sixth tones form
a minor third. The intervals from the sixth to the seventh and
from the seventh to the eighth tones do not sound particularly
"beautiful" and are not commonly found in classical western
music.
We have chosen Middle C as the basic keynote of this series
(this tone corresponds with 264 Hz). Ifwe mark the other tones
- those having higher frequencies - on a keyboard, then we
obtain the following picture:
Musical Temperaments Introduction and Fundamental Properties 3
It



The black dots correspond with musically significant intervals
or tones. The lilac-colored dot (for the tone with the sevenfold
frequency) represents a tone that does not appear in
conventional scales. The position of this dot shows us
approximately where this particular tone lies, that is, between
which of the "more common" tones.
A study of intervals and frequencies makes the following
apparent:
An interval between two tones is dependent only on the
relationship between the two frequencies, not on the absolute
value of these
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
Since we now know that intervals are dependent only on the
relationship between the frequencies of two tones, we can enter
the intervals and the corresponding frequency ratios in a table.
The number indicated in each case gives the quotients of the
higher to the lower frequency.
Interval Frequency ratio
Octave 2
Fifth 3/2
Fourth 4/3
Major Third 5/4
Minor Third 6/5
This table can be used as in the following example:
4 Introduction and Fundamental Properties Musical Temperaments
If you wish to find the tone that lies exactly a fourth above the
tone of 240 Hz, you must calculate the frequency of this new
tone as 240 * 4/3 = 320. Thus, the desired tone has a frequency
of320 Hz.
In the previous music examples we heard tones that were
played one by one. However, it is also musically interesting to
hear two or more tones played simultaneously.
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
In the introduction we read and heard how the rules for
calculating musical intervals work. In the following sections we
would like to examine how musically significant scales can be
built from these intervals. We recommend that the section Pure
Tuning be studied first.
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 5
Tuning Systems and Frequencies
Musical Scales in Different Tunings
Pure Tuning
Having learned about frequency ratios in the section
Frequencies and Intervals, we would now like to build a major
scale.
It would be helpful if we could see the octave on a keyboard.
I
We could begin the scale basically with any arbitrary tone.
However, we will begin with Middle C (with a frequency of
264 Hz), because we can then represent the major scale on a
piano keyboard in particularly simple terms, namely, on the
white keys only.
All further tones are subsequently determined by intervals that
they form with the keynote. We have already seen that the
octave doubles the frequency of the keynote. This can be
represented as follows:
E. Neuwirth, Musical Temperaments
Springer-Verlag/Wien 1997
6 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments


2
Thus we have defined the frequency of two tones.
The whole scale consists of 8 tones. Thus we still must
determine the frequency of the other 6 tones. We learned in the
section on Pitch and Frequency that the fifth has a frequency
ratio of 3/2. Therefore we can add a further tone to our scale:

V
3
2

Knowing that the third has a ratio of 5/4 and the fourth a ratio
of 4/3, we can add the following two tones:
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 7

w
5 4
4 3
Thus we have now derived the following tones from the keynote:

Three tones are still missing. Let us turn our attention first to
the two missing high tones. The highest of these two tones
cannot be immediately determined from the keynote. But we
see that this tone lies exactly a major third above the fifth above
the keynote. This becomes clear when we look at the keyboard
diagram and observe that one white key and two black keys lie
between the fifth and the unknown tone. Two black keys and
one white key also lie between the fundamental tone and the
third (both intervals are marked in the following diagram):



V V
8 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
Because of this we can determine the frequency of the new tone
by multiplying the frequency of the fifth by 5/4. The frequency
of the fifth is 3/2 of the basic frequency. Since 3/2 * 5/4 = 15/8,
the frequency of our new tone equals the frequency of the
keynote multiplied by 15/8. By the way, the interval between
the keynote and the new tone is called the seventh.
Thus we obtain the following diagram:


15
8

In the same manner, the tone directly under the seventh lies
exactly a third above the fourth:

VV
Thus its frequency is calculated as 4/3 * 5/4 = 5/3. The interval
with this frequency ratio is called a sixth and we now have
arrived at the following diagram:
Musical Temperaments


5
3
Tuning Systems and Frequencies 9

Weare now missing just a single tone - the second.
The calculation to deduce the second is a little more complicated
than that for the other intervals. The following observation is
fundamental:
Let us go two fifths upwards from the keynote:

VV
3 3
2 2
In this way we come to the tone that lies an octave above the
second. The frequency of this tone is the basic frequency
multiplied by 3/2 * 3/2 = 9/4.
We observe that this frequency is greater than the basic
frequency multiplied by two. And this tone actually lies above
the tone with the doubled basic frequency, since this latter tone
is the octave. When we go an octave below this new tone (with
the basic frequency multiplied by 9/4) we come to the second.
Since going up an octave requires a doubling of the frequency,
conversely going down an octave requires halving the
10 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
frequency. Therefore the second has a frequency ratio of
9/4 * 1/2 = 9/8.
With this we have determined the last missing frequency for
our scale:

V
9
8

The complete list of frequency ratios for all intervals in pure
tuning looks like this (this table also contains the frequencies
for the tones in the pure C Major scale beginning on Middle C):
Interval Frequency ratio Frequency
Keynote 1 264
Second 9/8 297
Third 5/4 330
Fourth 4/3 352
Fifth 3/2 396
Sixth 5/3 440
Seventh 15/8 495
Octave 2 528
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
The basic idea of pure tuning is that all important intervals (the
major and minor thirds and the fifth) are to be expressed by the
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 11
simplest possible number ratios. Unfortunately this does not
function as well as one would like it to. The section Intervals
and Triads in Pure Tuning gives more detailed information
about this. The explanation is rather complicated. If you would
rather learn something at this point about another tuning
system, then please turn to the section Pythagorean Tuning.
12 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
Intervals and Triads in Pure Tuning
This section is mathematically somewhat more challenging than
most of the others. However, if you first skim through this section
at least once, you will be able to understand the most important
facts in the sections on the other tunings. Above all, this section
should help you to understand why tuning systems other than
pure tuning are actually necessary.
If you take a major scale in pure tuning and play at the same
time the keynote, the major third above and the fifth above, a
major triad is formed .

If you click the following diagram, you will be able to hear this
chord.
We can form further triads from the tones of the pure major
scale if we build a chord consisting of the tone "two scale steps
higher" and the tone "four scale steps higher" on each degree of
the scale. "One scale step up" here means going from one white
key to the next white key.
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
Let us now begin with a more detailed analysis of triads.
Let us see once more the triad formed on the keynote of a pure
major scale.
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 13

This chord sounds very "pure." The second tone has the 5/4-fold
frequency of the keynote and the third tone has the 3/2-fold
frequency of the keynote . (see the table of ratios in pure tuning
in the appendix "Pictorial explanations").
You also get this chord when you take a basic frequency of
66 Hz and form the fourfold, the fivefold and the sixfold
frequency of this basic frequency. The three tones of our chord
are therefore the third, fourth and fifth overtones of our basic
tone of 66 Hz. If we use only tones in pure tuning, then two
further chords will produce a pure major triad.
Let us begin with the tone on the fourth degree and add to this
the tones on the sixth and the octave .


The frequencies of these three tones are the same as the
frequency of the keynote of our major scale multiplied by 4/3,
5/3 and 2. Therefore the second tone of the major triad has the
frequency ofthe first tone multiplied by (5/3) 1 (4/3) = 514. The
third tone has the frequency of the keynote multiplied by
21 (4/3) = 3/2. Thus the frequency ratios for the "inner intervals"
of this chord are the same as those for a triad on the keynote of
a pure major scale (see the table of ratios in pure tuning in the
appendix "Pictorial Explanations.")
14 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
At this point it will be useful to introduce a new term. So far we
have been using names like "third" in order to indicate the
degrees of a scale. Thus we call the third degree of the major
scale a third. But normally the name "third" indicates this
interval without referring to the keynote of a scale. In our triad
example, the interval formed between the fourth above the
keynote and the sixth above the keynote is also a third. We
would now like to name this kind of interval the "inner third" of
a triad. Therefore, names like second, third, fourth, etc.
normally indicate the degrees of the scale or intervals connected
to the keynote of the scale. Names like "inner second," "inner
third," "inner fourth," etc., on the other hand, relate to intervals
within a chord, whose keynote is not the fundamental tone of
the underlying scale.
A major triad is also created when we begin with the fifth
degree above the keynote and add to it the seventh and the
ninth.

The first tone in this chord has the frequency of the keynote of
the major scale multiplied by 3/2. The second tone has this same
frequency multiplied by 15/8 and the third has it multiplied by
914 (see the table of ratios in pure tuning in the appendix
"Pictorial explanations.")
Therefore the second tone has the frequency of the first tone
multiplied by (15/8) 1 (312) = 514 and the third tone has the
frequency of the first tone multiplied by (9/4) 1 (3/2) = (3/2). Thus
the "inner" frequency ratios here are again those of a triad on
the fundamental tone of a pure major scale, that is of a pure
major triad.
Let us now create a triad on the third below the keynote. This
chord consists of the sixth, which has been transposed down an
octave, the keynote and the third. This triad is minor.
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 15

The frequency of the first tone of this triad is the frequency of
the keynote of the major scale multiplied by (5/3) / 2 = 5/6. The
frequency of the keynote is the 5/4-fold ofthe keynote of the
major scale. Therefore the frequency of the second tone is the
frequency of the first tone multiplied by 1/ (5/6) = 6/5 and the
frequency of the third tone is the frequency of the first tone
multiplied by (5/4) / (5/6) = 3/2. These "inner" frequency ratios
are characteristic for the minor triad.
For a minor triad the frequency of the second (middle) tone is
the frequency of the keynote multiplied by 6/5 and the
frequency of the (third) highest tone is the frequency of the
keynote multiplied by 3/2. One can also check to see that the
three tones of a minor triad have the 10-fold, 12-fold and 15-fold
frequency of a common keynote. When, for example, our minor
triad consists of tones with the frequencies 220 Hz, 264 Hz and
330 Hz, then these three frequencies are the basic frequency of
22 Hz multiplied by 10, 12 and 15.
Our pure scale also contains another minor chord. When we
form a triad based on the third scale degree, then we have a
chord made out of the third, fifth and seventh of the pure major
scale.

16 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
The three tones of this chord have the frequency of the keynote
of the scale multiplied by 5/4, 3/2 and 15/8. Therefore the second
tone has the frequency of the first tone multiplied by
(3/2) / (5/4) = 6/5 and the third tone has this frequency
multiplied by (15/8) / (5/4) = 3/2. Thus, this chord is really a
minor triad.
Next let us examine the triad beginning on the second degree .

This chord does not sound very pure. Why is this?
The three tones of this triad have the frequency of the keynote
of the major scale multiplied by 9/8, 4/3 and 5/3 (see the table of
ratios in pure tuning in the appendix "Pictorial explanations.")
Therefore the frequency of the second and third tones of this
chord amount to the frequency of the first tone of this chord
multiplied by (4/3) / (9/8) = 32/27 and (5/3) / (9/8) = 40/27. If this
chord were a pure minor triad, then the frequency ratios would
have to read 6/5 and 3/2. Let us calculate these values as
decimal numbers:
32/27 = 1.1852
40/27 = 1.4815
6/5 = 1.2000
3/2 = 1.5000
In comparison with a pure minor triad, not only is the "inner
third" - that is, the distance between the first and the second
tone - but also the "inner fifth" - that is, the distance between
the first and the third tone - too small.
When we calculate the quotients between the real value (32/27
and 40/27) and the ideal value (6/5 and 3/2) for both the inner
third and the inner fifth of this interval, we get
(6/5) / (32/27) = 81/80 = 1.0125
(3/2) / (40/27) = 81/80 = 1.0125
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 17
This factor 81180 = 1.0125 is called the syntonic comma (not to
be confused with the Pythagorean comma, about which we will
speak later).
When, as an experiment, we reduce the value of the second in
pure tuning by this syntonic comma, then we obtain a second
with a frequency ratio of (9/8) I (81180) = 10/9 instead of a second
with a frequency ratio of 918.
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
We would now like to examine which of the two seconds - 9/8 or
10/9 -produce the musically more significant result.
Let us consider the following table:
Interval Frequ. Frequ. Frequ. Frequ.
ratio ratio ratio ratio
with the with the with the with the
keynote inner inner inner
second third fifth
Keynote 1 9/8 5/4 3/2
Second 9/8 10/9 32/27 40/27
Third 514 16/15 615 3/2
Fourth 413 9/8 5/4 3/2
Fifth 3/2 10/9 514 3/2
Sixth 5/3 9/8 6/5 3/2
Seventh 15/8 16/15 6/5 64145
Octave 2 9/8 5/4 3/2
What do the numbers in the columns of this table mean?
Frequency ratio with the keynote
shows once again the frequency ratios that we derived in
the section Pure Tuning.
The third above the keynote of the scale has, for example,
the frequency of the keynote multiplied by 5/4.
18 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
Frequency ratio with the inner second
shows the ratio between the frequency of a tone and that of
the tone a step higher in the pure major scale.
Proceeding from the third with a ratio of 5/4 with the
keynote, the tone a step higher, that is the fourth, has the
ratio of 4/3 with the keynote. Thus, these two tones have a
ratio with each other of (4/3) / (5/4) = 16/15
Frequency ratio with the inner third
shows the ratio between the frequency of a tone and that of
the tone two steps higher in the pure major scale.
Proceeding from the third with a ratio of 5/4 with the
keynote, the tone two steps higher, that is the fifth, has the
ratio of 3/2 with the keynote. Thus, these two tones have a
ratio with each other of (3/2) / (5/4) = 6/5
Frequency ratio with the inner fifth
shows the ratio between the frequency of a tone and that of
the tone four steps higher in the pure major scale.
Proceeding from the third with a ratio of 5/4 with the
keynote, the tone four steps higher, that is the seventh, has
the ratio of 15/8 with the keynote. Thus, these two tones
have a ratio with each other of (15/8) / (5/4) = 3/2
Ifwe now summarize what we have learned about the triads
that can be formed out of the tones of the pure major scale, then
we notice that there are different types of triads.
The triads on the keynote, fourth and fifth have the same inner
intervals, namely a pure major third and a pure fifth (with
reference to the keynote tone of the triad).
The triads on the third and sixth likewise have the same inner
frequency ratios: a pure minor third and a pure fifth (with
reference to the keynote of the triad).
The triad on the seventh consists of a pure minor third and an
interval that we have not yet examined in detail. This interval
is called the diminished fifth; it will not concern us further. By
the way, this type of triad is also called the diminished triad.
A problem is created by the triad on the second. The two inner
intervals are an almost pure minor third and an almost pure
fifth. Both intervals are a syntonic comma too small. For this
reason this triad sounds out oftune. We can try to fix this
impurity by lowering the keynote of this chord by a syntonic
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 19
comma, leaving the two higher tones of this chord unchanged.
By this means the two "impure" intervals, namely the
somewhat flat third and the somewhat flat fifth, are enlarged to
the correct intervallic distance. In this manner we obtain a pure
minor triad on the second degree of the pure scale.
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
The triad with the modified second sounds purer than the triad
with the "original" second. Thus, one could mistakenly believe
that the problem with the triad on the second could be solved
merely by lowering the second by a syntonic comma. This does
not work for the simple reason that this tone (the second)
appears in two further triads. Altogether, the second in'the
major scale appears in three triads:
in the triad on the second

in the triad on the fifth

and in the triad on the seventh
20 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments

The triad on the second itself is - as we have just seen-
"improved" by modifying the second itself. The triad on the
seventh presents no special problem, since as a diminished triad
it does not sound especially "well tuned" and this effect is not
particularly increased by modifying the second.
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
A really audible problem arises with the triad on the fifth.
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
Therefore, we require the unimproved second in order for the
triad on the fifth to sound in tune, and we require the improved
second in order for the triad on the second to sound in tune.
However, the scale cannot contain both tones at the same time,
and thus this creates an insoluble problem in the area of pure
tuning. This is one of the reasons why there are tuning systems
other than pure tuning.
The column "Frequency ratio with the inner second" in the table
demonstrating the inner intervals of the triads of the major
scale also shows something interesting. This column contains
the frequency ratios of the "inner seconds" - intervals that are
also called whole tones and halftones. Here is once again the
corresponding table columns:
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 21
Interval Whole Frequency
tone ratio
or with the
half inner
tone second
Keynote Whole tone 9/8
Second Whole tone 10/9
Third Halftone 16/15
Fourth Whole tone 9/8
Fifth Whole tone 10/9
Sixth Whole tone 9/8
Seventh Halftone 16/15
Octave Whole tone 9/8
This table shows that pure tuning contains two kinds of whole
tones, namely the 9/8-whole tone and the 10/9-whole tone. The
difference (or rather the difference ratio) between these two
whole tones is something that we already know:
(9/8) / (l0/9) = 81/80, that is, the syntonic comma.
We also see that the pure major third is made up of a larger and
a smaller whole tone. The minor third is made up of a larger
whole tone and a halftone.
We see moreover that the major triad contains a major third
between its first and second tones and a minor third between its
second and third tones. The minor triad also contains these two
intervals, only in the reversed order. For the minor triad the
distance between the first and second tones is a minor third and
the distance between the second and third tones is a major
third. It could also be said that the minor triad is a major triad
"upside down."
We have tried to solve the problem ofthe triad on the second by
lowering the second by a syntonic comma. For the above table
this would mean in effect that the 10/9-whole tone and the 9/8-
whole tone would exchange places on the first and second steps
of the scale. Thus we would begin with a 10/9-whole tone
22 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
followed by a 9/8-whole tone. We have seen that we can solve
one problem (triad on the second) with this improved tone, but
in doing so we create a new problem (triad on the fifth).
Moreover, it is rather unsatisfactory that pure tuning should
contain two different kinds of whole tones. Many problems
would be solved much more easily if there were only one kind of
whole tone. In the further sections we will see how different
tuning systems try to deal with the problem just described.
For further reading we now recommend the section
Pythagorean Tuning.
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 23
Pythagorean Tuning
If you have worked through the section on "Intervals and Triads
in Pure Tuning" then you will already know some of the
information that will be presented in this section. In the
following, we will first deal with some of the properties of pure
tuning in greater detail. You should not skip over this material
even if some of it is already known to you.
In the section Pure Tuning we examined the topic of pure
tuning in detail. This tuning system has the following problem:
The distance from the keynote to the second and from the
second to the third actually involves the same interval:

vv
The second corresponds with a frequency ratio of 9/8 and the
third with a frequency ratio of 5/4. Therefore the frequency ratio
ofthe second to the third is (5/4) / (9/8) = 40/36 = 10/9. But this
interval should be the same interval as the "normal" second,
corresponding with the ratio 9/8. It is obvious that not all ofthe
seconds (or, in other words, whole tones) that occur in pure
tuning are equal. By whole tone we mean of course a second.
If we examine the piano keyboard, then we will see that several
whole tones (or seconds) occur. These appear between the
following steps (meaning tones that lie next to each other) of the
major scale:
1-2,2-3,4-5,5-6,6-7
Whole tones are found on a keyboard wherever a black key lies
between two white keys.
24 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
vv vvv
If we take the values for the frequencies of the single steps
given in the section Pure Tuning, then we can calculate the
values for the frequency ratios of these whole steps. For this we
must simply divide the frequency ratios of such neighboring
tones (as they relate to the frequency ratio of the keynote) into
each other.
Step Ratio Whole tone
1-2 9/8/1 9/8
2-3 5/4/9/8 10/9
4-5 3/2/4/3 9/8
5-6 5/3/3/2 10/9
6-7 15/8/5/3 9/8
We see therefore that there are 5 whole tones in the pure scale
and that they are not all the same. There are two different types
of whole tones: the whole tones between steps 1-2,4-5 and 6-7
have a frequency ratio of 9/8; the whole tones between steps 2-3
and 5-6 have a frequency ratio of 10/9.
For the sake of completeness, we would still like to calculate the
frequency ratios that belong to the half tones between steps 3-4
and 7-8. (We recognize halftones on the keyboard when no
other key lies between the two keys involved.)
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 25
v V
We can see the corresponding frequency ratios in the following
table:
Step Ratio Half tone
3-4 413/5/4 16/15
7-8 2/15/8 16/15
Thus, these two halftones have the same frequency ratio.
Ideally two half tones should produce exactly one whole tone,
that is, the whole tone should have the frequency ratio
(16/15) * (16/15) = 256/225. The decimal notation ofthis fraction
is 256/225 = 1.138. The two whole tones in pure tuning have a
decimal notation of 9/8 = 1.125 and 10/9 = 1.111. Thus, in pure
tuning not only are there different whole tones, but two half
tones are, besides, more than each of these two whole tones.
Let us look at to these three basic tones proceeding from Middle
c:
Tone Ratio Frequency
Keynote 1 264
Halftone 16/15 281.6
Minor whole tone 10/9 293.3
Major whole tone 9/8 297
26 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
These problems were already known to the Pythagoreans. The
solution they chose is as follows:
The complete scale was to be derived only from the frequency
ratio of the pure fifth, that is 3/2. In connection with this, the
following observation is important: the octave is completed by
adding a fourth to the fifth. In other words, the fourth is formed
when you take the upper octave and go down a fifth. Therefore
we can also use fourths in our system and still remain true to
the basic principle of deriving everything from the fifth.
In pure tuning, which intervals are derived directly from the
fifth? Answer: the fifth, fourth and second. Thus we can take
over the following tones from the pure tuning system:

The tones that are still missing are likewise not very difficult to
determine:
We obtain the missing third by adding a further second
upwards from the second degree. Because the second can be
described as "two fifths above and then an octave below," we
remain true to our principle of deriving everything from the
fifth.
Musical Temperaments

V
9
8
Tuning Systems and Frequencies 27

Proceeding from the basic frequency, this results in a frequency
ratio of 9/8 * 9/8 = 81164. In pure tuning we had the ratio of
5/4 = 80/64 for this third.
When we compare the third in Pythagoreantuning with the
third in pure tuning, and calculate the corresponding frequency
ratio, we get (81164) / (80/64) = 81/80. The musically important
question is: Can such a small difference be heard?
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
The interval with the frequency ratio 81180 = 1.025 is called the
syntonic comma. The difference between the pure third and the
Pythagorean third is equal therefore to a syntonic comma.
The tones that are still missing in our major scale are the sixth
and the seventh. We can arrive at the sixth most simply by
taking the fifth above the second .

V
3
2

28 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
The frequency ratio with the keynote is determined as
3/2 * 9/& = 27/16. In pure tuning this ratio had the value 513.
When raised to a common denominator we get the value 81/48
in pure tuning and 80/48 in Pythagorean tuning. The quotient
ofthese two ratios is 81/80. Thus, the syntonic comma appears
again here too.
We determine the seventh as a fifth above our new third.We see
this in the following diagram:

V
3
2

We get the value of 81164 * 3/2 = 243/128 for this frequency
ratio. In pure tuning the seventh has a value of 15/8 = 240/128.
The quotient of both ofthese ratios is again 243/240 = 81180,
thus the syntonic comma again.
If we combine all these values in Pythagorean tuning and
compare them with the corresponding values in pure tuning we
get the following table (the intervals that have different values
in pure and Pythagorean tunings are marked by asterisks):
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 29
Interval Pythagorean Pure
Keynote 1 1
Second 9/8 9/8
Third* 81/64 514
Fourth 413 413
Fifth 3/2 3/2
Sixth* 27/16 513
Seventh* 243/128 1518
Octave 2 2
If we calculate these fractions in decimal notation we get the
following table:
Interval Pythagorean Pure
Keynote 1.0000 1.0000
Second 1.1250 1.1250
Third* 1.2656 1.2500
Fourth 1.3333 1.3333
Fifth 1.5000 1.5000
Sixth* 1.6875 1.6667
Seventh* 1.8984 1.8750
Octave 2.0000 2.0000
30 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
If, proceeding from this table, we calculate the frequencies of
the single tones (in C Major), then we obtain the following
values:
Interval Pythagorean Pure
Keynote 264.00 264
Second 297.00 297
Third* 334.13 330
Fourth 352.00. 352
Fifth 396.00 396
Sixth * 445.50 440
Seventh* 501.19 495
Octave 528.00 528
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
We notice clearly audible differences between these two
tunings.
In the section Intervals and Triads in Pythagorean Tuning you
will learn more about the nature of Pythagorean tuning.
If you would rather learn more about other tuning systems at
this point, then go to the section Meantone Tuning.
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 31
Intervals and Triads in Pythagorean Tuning
This section is mathematically somewhat more challenging than
some of the others. However, if you first skim through this
section at least once, you will be able to understand the most
important facts in the sections about the other tunings. Above
all, this section should help you to understand why pure tuning
was changed to Pythagorean tuning.
If you take a major scale in Pythagorean tuning and play at the
same time the keynote, the major third above and the fifth
above, a major triad is formed .

This chord sounds more out of tune than the same chord in pure
tuning.
In a similar way to how we built triads out of the pure major
scale, we can form yet more triads from the tones of the
Pythagorean major scale: we must simply build a chord on each
tone of the scale consisting of that tone, the tone "two scale
steps higher" and the tone "four scale steps higher". "One scale
step up" here again means going from one white key to the next
white key.
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
Let us begin now with a more detailed analysis of all these
triads.
To this end, let us consider the following table of inner interval
ratios.
32 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
Frequency Ratios, Pythagorean Tuning
(as Fractions)
Interval Frequ. Frequ. Frequ.
ratio ratio ratio
with the with the with the
keynote inner inner
second third
Keynote 1 9/8 81164
Second 9/8 9/8 32/27
Third 81164 256/243 32/27
Fourth 413 9/8 81/64
Fifth 3/2 9/8 81/64
Sixth 27/16 9/8 32/27
Seventh 243/128 256/243 32/27
Octave 2 9/8 81164
Frequ.
ratio
with the
inner
fifth
3/2
3/2
3/2
3/2
3/2
3/2
10241729
3/2
The next table shows the same values as decimal numbers, not
as fractions:
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 33
Frequency Ratios, Pythagorean Tuning
Interval Frequ. Frequ. Frequ.
ratio ratio ratio
with the with the with the
keynote inner inner
second third
Keynote 1.0000 1.1250 1.2656
Second 1.1250 1.1250 1.1852
Third 1.2656 1.0535 1.1852
Fourth 1.3333 1.1250 1.2656
Fifth 1.5000 1.1250 1.2656
Sixth 1.6875 1.1250 1.1852
Seventh 1.8984 1.0535 1.1852
Octave 2.0000 1.1250 1.2656
If you wish, you may also compare this table with the
corresponding table for pure tuning.
Frequ.
ratio
with the
inner
fifth
1.5000
1.5000
1.5000
1.5000
1.5000
1.5000
1.4047
1.5000
Upon listening to these triads, one notices that the musically
important triads on the keynote, fourth and fifth in
Pythagorean tuning sound relatively out of tune. Because of this
it was necessary to search for other tuning systems. One of
these alternative tuning methods is meantone tuning.
34 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
Meantone Tuning
A very difficult problem in pure tuning runs as follows:
In the ideal case, after 4 fifths are built up and the top fifth is
then dropped down two octaves, a third should result .


We have already encountered this problem in the construction
of Pythagorean tuning. We noticed there that the pure third is
not produced when two rising seconds are added together. Since
a second equals 2 upwards-rising fifths taken down an octave, 2
seconds should equal 4 rising fifths taken down 2 octaves. We
were able to solve the problem at that point by constructing a
Pythagorean third consisting of 2 pure seconds. Two rising
seconds (or 4 fifths up followed by 2 octaves down) are
somewhat larger than the pure third, namely 81/64 compared
with 5/4 = 80/64.
In Pythagorean tuning 4 fifths produce a third because the
Pythagorean third that is used is somewhat larger than the
pure third.
The difference that arises between a pure third and two pure
whole tones is called, as we already know, the syntonic comma.
One could also say that pure tuning has solved the problem
caused by the third and the whole tones in the following
manner: one interval has been enlarged by a syntonic comma,
namely the third between the keynote and the third degree.
Another way to exact a third out of 4 upward-rising fifths taken
down two octaves is not to enlarge the third, but rather to
reduce the fifth. These four successive fifths must end on
exactly the same tone as a third and two octaves. A third and
two successive octaves produce a frequency ratio of
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 35
5/4 * 2 * 2 = 5. Therefore, the fifth that we now require must
have a frequency ratio that produces a 5 when it is multiplied
by itself four times. Thus the new fifth has a frequency ratio
that equals the 4th root of 5. This is written mathematically as
5" 1/4 , which yields a value of 1.4953. The pure fifth has a value
of 3/2 = 1.5000. The new fifth now has the desired trait: 4 of
these fifths produce a third after 4 rising fifths have been
dropped down 2 octaves. Now we would like to form again a
complete major scale. The tuning of this scale is called
meantone tuning.
The basic intervals for this new construction are the new fifth
and the third. Since the new fifth is created out of the third in
any case, we could also say that the complete scale is
constructed from the pure third. Let us begin with the third,
fifth and octave:

5
4

1.4953

2
The next step is to determine the second. We achieve this by
taking two of our new fifths in an upwards direction and then
by dropping down an octave. Therefore the frequency ratio is
5"(1/4) * 5"(114) / 2 = 1.1180.
36 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments


V
1.1180
As a comparison: the second in pure tuning was 9/8 = 1.1250.
The second in Pythagorean tuning was identical with the pure
second. When we now calculate the seconds for pure and
meantone tuning (proceeding from a basic frequency of 264 Hz),
then we get 297 Hz for the former and 295.16 Hz for the latter.
Let us again listen to this difference.
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
Since the frequency difference is about 2 Hz and both tones are
played 1.5 seconds long, you should hear approximately 3 beats.
The remaining tones in our major scale are determined as
follows:
We have already considered that a fourth above is the same as
an octave above taken down a fifth. Thus the fourth must have
a frequency ratio of 2/ 1.4953 = 1.3375 in meantone tuning .

V
1.3375
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 37
This frequency ratio differs from the corresponding ratio for the
fourth in both pure and Pythagorean tuning, where it had the
value 4/3 = 1.3333.
The two still missing tones are easily obtained with the help of
our new fifth: each tone lies a fifth above the second and the
third respectively:

\/<J
1.4953 1.4953
Ifwe enter the frequency ratios just established in tabular form
and compare them with those for pure and Pythagorean tuning,
then we obtain the following values:
Interval Meantone Pythag. Pure
Keynote 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
Second 1.1180 1.1250 1.1250
Third 1.2500 1.2656 1.2500
Fourth 1.3375 1.3333 1.3333
Fifth 1.4953 1.5000 1.5000
Sixth 1.6719 1.6875 1.6667
Seventh 1.8692 1.8984 1.8750
Octave 2.0000 2.0000 2.0000
If, proceeding from this table, we calculate the frequencies of
the single tones (in C Major), then we obtain the following
values:
38 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
Interval Meantone Pythag. Pure
Keynote 264.00 264.00 264
Second 295.16 297.00 297
Third 330.00 334.13 330
Fourth 353.09 352.00 352
Fifth 394.77 396.00 396
Sixth 441.37 445.50 440
Seventh 493.47 501.19 495
Octave 528.00 528.00 528
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
There are clearly audible differences between these three
tunings.
In the section Intervals and Triads in Meantone Tuning you will
learn more about the properties of Pythagorean tuning.
If you would rather learn more about further tuning systems at
this point, then proceed to the section Equal Temperament.
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 39
Intervals and Triads in Meantone Tuning
This section is mathematically somewhat more challenging than
some of the other sections. However, you will be able to
understand the most important facts in the sections about other
tunings if you first skim through this section at least once. Above
all, this section should help you to understand why meantone
tuning was a necessary addition to pure tuning and
Pythagorean tuning.
A close examination of pure tuning has shown us that there are
problems with some triads. The triad on the second in particular
sounds very out of tune because the inner fifth of this triad is
too small by a syntonic comma and therefore only has a
frequency ratio of 40/27 = 1.4815. The corresponding frequency
ratio ofthe pure fifth is 3/2 = 1.5000.
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
This unpleasant characteristic does not occur in Pythagorean
tuning. On the other hand, the thirds in the three major triads
on the keynote, fourth and fifth are a syntonic comma too high.
Thus these triads sound out of tune and not very harmonic.
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
Let us first listen to the major triad on the keynote of a major
scale tuned in meantone tuning.
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
This triad sounds very pure, almost as pure as the major triad
on the keynote of a major scale in pure tuning.
Just as we formed triads out of pure and Pythagorean major
scales, we can also build further triads out of the tones of the
meantone major scale: by forming those chords for each tone of
the scale that consist of the tone in question, the tone "two scale
steps higher" and the tone "four scale steps higher." "One scale
step up" here again means going from one white key to the next
white key.
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
40 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
Let us now begin with a more detailed analysis of all these
triads.
In this regard let us consider the following table of inner
intervallic ratios.
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies. 41
Frequency Ratios, Meantone Tuning
Interval Frequ. Frequ. Frequ. Frequ.
ratio ratio ratio ratio
with the with the with the with the
keynote inner inner inner
second third fifth
Keynote 1.0000 1.1180 1.2500 1.4953
Second 1.1180 1.1180 1.1963 1.4953
Third 1.2500 1.0700 1.1963 1.4953
Fourth 1.3375 1.1180 1.2500 1.4953
Fifth 1.4952 1.1180 1.2500 1.4953
Sixth 1.6719 1.1180 1.1963 1.4953
Seventh 1.8692 1.0700 1.1963 1.4311
Octave 2.0000 1.1180 1.2500 1.4953
In comparing these triads we notice that the major triads on the
keynote, fourth and fifth in meantone tuning are almost exactly
as in tune (or euphonic) as those in pure tuning. Moreover,
meantone tuning does not have the problem with the out-of-
tune minor triad on the second. Furthermore, meantone tuning
does not have the main problem that pure tuning had, namely,
different whole tones. Therefore, meantone tuning has almost
the complete advantage of pure tuning without the severe
disadvantage of Pythagorean tuning. Thus it appears that we
have found here the "best" tuning system. You can fmd out why
this is not so in the section on Equal Tuning.
42 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
Equal Temperament (Tuning)
The circle of fifths is a very important musical concept: if we go
up 12 fifths then we should arrive again at the starting point (at
a higher range, of course, namely 7 octaves higher). This is
illustrated by the following diagram:
The frequency ratio of an octave equals 2. Therefore, the
frequency ratio of two tones separated by a distance of 7 octaves
has the value 2
A
7 = 128.
The frequency ratio of a fifth in pure tuning is 3/2 = 1.5.
Therefore, the frequency ratio of two tones separated by 12
fifths has the value (3/2) A 12 = 1.5
A
12 = 53144114096 = 129.7463.
Ifwe start from the same keynote and build up 12 fifths on the
one hand and 7 octaves on the other hand, then we obtain two
tones whose frequencies are related to each other as follows:
3/2) A 12) 1 2
A
7 = 3
A
12/2A19 = 531441/524288 = 1.013643. This
ratio is called the Pythagorean comma. It is "the amount by
which the circle of fifths is not closed in pure tuning." The tone
that lies 12 fifths above the starting point is slightly higher than
the tone that lies 7 octaves above this same starting point. The
pure fifth is therefore a little too large to create a circle of fifths
that is completely closed.
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
Because Pythagorean tuning uses the same frequency ratio for
the fifth as does pure tuning, the problem of the open circle of
fifths arises also in the latter system.
What happens to this problem in meantone tuning?
The fifth in meantone tuning has a frequency ratio of 5 A (114).
Therefore, two tones separated by 12 such fifths have a
frequency ratio of 5
A
3 = 125. This is a little too low when
compared with the tone 7 octaves above the keynote. If we start
at the same keynote and go up 12 meantone fifths on the one
hand, and then 7 octaves on the other hand, we get two tones
with a frequency ratio of 125/128 = 0.9766. Therefore, the
meantone fifth is a little too small for a closed circle of fifths.
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 43
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
Ifthe circle of fifths is to be closed exactly, how large should the
fifth be? Remember, 12 such fifths must equal 7 octaves. We
need a number whose 12th power equals 128, thus
128
A
(1112) = 2
A
(7/12) = 1.4983. This fifth closes the circle of
fifths.
Let us build our scale again, now based on this fifth. If we, as
we did earlier, use the fact that the fourth can be created by
going "up an octave and then down a fifth," then we can form
the first 4 tones of our scale immediately:



2
In equal temperament - as in Pythagorean and meantone
tuning - the second is formed by the method "two fifths up and
then down an octave." Its frequency ratio equals
(2
A
(7/12))A2 I 2 = 2
A
(14112) I 2 = 2
A
(2/12) = 2
A
(1I6) = 1.1225.
With this value for the frequency ratio of the second, we can
form the second of the major scale from the keynote. Using this
same value and building up from the second, we can likewise
form the third of the major scale.
44 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments

1 ~
1.1225
The two still missing steps of our scale are obtained as the fifth
above the second and as the fifth above the third:

~
1.4983
Ifwe enter these frequency ratios in a table and at the same
time compare them with those in meantone, pure and
Pythagorean tunings, we obtain the following values:
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 45
Interval Equal Meantone Pythag. Pure
Keynote 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
Second 1.1225 1.1180 1.1250 1.1250
Third 1.2599 1.2500 1.2656 1.2500
Fourth 1.3348 1.3375 1.3333 1.3333
Fifth 1.4983 1.4953 1.5000 1.5000
Sixth 1.6818 1.6719 1.6875 1.6667
Seventh 1.8877 1.8692 1.8984 1.8750
Octave 2.0000 2.0000 2.0000 2.0000
If we start from this table and calculate the frequencies of the
single tones (in C Major), we obtain the following values:
Interval Equal Meantone Pythag. Pure
Keynote 264.00 264.00 264.00 264
Second 296.33 295.16 297.00 297
Third 332.62 330.00 334.13 330
Fourth 352.40 353.09 352.00 352
Fifth 395.55 395.77 396.00 396
Sixth 443.99 441.37 445.50 440
Seventh 498.37 493.47 501.19 495
Octave 528.00 528.00 528.00 528
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
There are clearly audible differences between these four tuning
systems.
46 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
In the section Intervals and Triads in Equal Temperament you
will learn more about the nature of equal temperament.
The section labeled Summary gives in condensed form all the
important information about the four tuning systems dealt with
in this document.
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 47
Intervals and Triads in Equal Temperament (Tuning)
As we did for the other tuning systems (pure, Pythagorean and
meantone), we would now like to examine for equal
temperament the inner intervallic ratios for triads on the
various degrees of the major scale.
Let us at first listen to the major triad on the keynote of a major
scale tuned in equal temperament.
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
This triad sounds rather pure - almost as pure as the major
triad on the keynote of a major scale in pure or meantone
tuning and, in any case, purer than the triad on the keynote in
Pythagorean tuning.
Just as we formed triads out of pure, Pythagorean and
meantone major scales, we can also build triads out of the tones
of the equally-tempered major scale: by forming those chords for
each tone of the scale that consist of the tone in question, the
tone "two scale steps higher" and the tone "four scale steps
higher." "One scale step up" here again means going from one
white key to the next white key.
At this place in the electronic version of the document you will
find several music examples which you can also listen to.
Let us now begin with a more detailed analysis of all these
triads. In this regard, let us consider the following table of inner
intervallic ratios.
48 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
Frequency Ratios, Equal Temperament
Interval Frequ. Frequ. Frequ. Frequ.
ratio ratio ratio ratio
with the with the with the with the
keynote inner inner inner
second third fifth
Keynote 1.0000 1.1225 1.2599 1.4983
Second 1.1225 1.1225 1.1892 1.4983
Third 1.2599 1.0595 1.1892 1.4983
Fourth 1.3348 1.1225 1.2599 1.4983
Fifth 1.4983 1.1225 1.2599 1.4983
Sixth 1.6818 1.1225 1.1892 1.4983
Seventh 1.8877 1.0595 1.1892 1.4142
Octave 2.0000 1.1225 1.2599 1.4983
This table shows that the triads on the keynote, fourth and fifth
have the same inner frequency ratios. Therefore, all these triads
sound the same. Moreover, the problem that some triads sound
especially in tune while others sound especially out of tune does
not exist. In the same manner, the inner frequency ratios for
the triads on the second, third and sixth are all the same.
Therefore, all these three triads (all are minor triads) sound
exactly the same. Thus, in equal temperament, triads that
should theoretically sound the same are in fact the same. This
was not the case in any of the other tuning systems (pure,
Pythagorean and meantone) that we examined previously.
Furthermore, this table also shows that in equal temperament
all of the whole tones in question are of the same size; they have
the frequency ratio 1.1225. The halftones in question have the
frequency ratio 1.0595. Since 1.0595"'2 = 1.1225, each whole
tone in equal temperament has the same size as 2 halftones.
The name "equal temperament" is derived from the fact that the
frequency ratios of all similar "inner" intervals on different
degrees of the scale, are all the same. In other tuning systems,
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 49
the frequency ratios for the same inner intervals on different
degrees of the scale are often noticably different.
The following paragraph goes beyond the scope of the topic dealt
with in this text and gives a brief view of further possible areas
of inquiry. Therefore the concepts that appear here will not be
explained in as much detail as previous concepts were.
In the course of this text we have not dealt with chromatic
tunings and scales. Chromatic scales are formed when half tones
are inserted between all the whole tones in a major scale. This
makes it possible to transpose; that is, for example, to playa
piece of music in D Major instead of E Major. As we have seen,
transposition can cause the "sound character" of triads to be
noticeably changed. Only equal temperament, on account of its
construction, makes it possible that in a transposed piece the
character of all triads is retained and only the pitch is altered.
One of the most famous music compositions associated with the
problem of tuning is Johann Sebastian Bach's "Well-Tempered
Klavier. " The first number from this keyboard cycle is played for
you at the start of the present document. A tuning system is
called "well-tempered" when it is uniform enough so that, for
example, one can playa tolerably-sounding D-flat Major (in
particular the triad on the keynote of this scale) on an
instrument that has been tuned to C Major. This condition is
met by equal temperament. "Well-tempered" refers not only to
equal temperament but also to every tuning system in which
"strange" keys can be played in a musically reasonable manner.
It is still not certain even today which tuning system Bach had
in mind when he composed the "Well-Tempered Klavier."
In the section Summary you will find a review of all the
important material about the four musical tuning systems
discussed in this text.
50 Tuning Systems and Frequencies Musical Temperaments
Summary
In this document we are discussing the following 4 important
tuning systems:
Pure tuning
Pythagorean tuning
Meantone tuning
Equal temperament
Pure tuning. is the point of departure for all common musical
tuning systems. The major scale in pure tuning is formed from
the pure third (frequency ratio 5/4) and the pure fifth (frequency
ratio 3/2). These two pure intervals (fifth and third) are derived
from the overtone series of a tone.
The pure scale has several problems:
Two half tones together do not produce a whole tone ..
Two successive seconds do not produce an exact third.
Four fifths up followed by a drop of 2 octaves do not produce an
exact third.
12 successive fifths up followed by a drop of 7 octaves do not
produce the same starting tone again.
Pythagorean tuning has a higher third than pure tuning, and
the Pythagorean fIfth is the same as the pure fIfth. The
Pythagorean third is produced by "adding together" two
successive pure seconds. As a consequence of this, two seconds
together form a third in Pythagorean tuning. The other
problems that we already know from pure tuning (2 half tones
not equaling a whole tone, 4 fifths not equaling a third + 2
octaves, 12 fifths not equaling 7 octaves) are not resolved here.
Meantone tuning uses the same third as a pure third, but a fifth
that is slightly smaller than the pure fifth. The meantone fifth
is just large enough so that 4 such fifths form an interval with
the range "two octaves and a pure third." In addition, two
seconds together also result in a third in meantone tuning. The
other problems that we met with in pure tuning and
Pythagorean tuning (2 half tones not equaling a whole tone, 4
fifths not equaling a third + 2 octaves), still remain unsolved.
Equal temperament also uses a fifth that is smaller than the
pure fifth. This fifth is however slightly larger than the
meantone fifth. The equal temperament third is slightly larger
than the pure third (which also equals the meantone third), and
Musical Temperaments Tuning Systems and Frequencies 51
slightly smaller than the Pythagorean third. The equal
temperament fifth is just large enough so that 12 such fifths
produce an interval with the range of 7 octaves, thereby closing
the circle of fifths. In equal temperament two seconds together
produce a third, and two halftones together produce a whole
tone. Also, the last problem that we encountered in the pure
and Pythagorean tuning systems (4 fifths not equaling a third +
2 octaves) is solved in equal temperament. The price paid,
however, is that in equal temperament no interval is equal to an
interval from pure tuning and therfore no interval can be
derived directly from the overtone series or expressed as a
simple fraction.
Musical Temperaments Appendices 53
Appendices
Pictorial explanations
Table of Ratios for Pure Tuning
In the following diagram you see for each tone of the major scale
its frequency as the multiple of the frequency of the keynote of
this scale.

3
12.
II..
1
9 5 4 3 5 1 5
2
9 5 8
3
10 15
3 4 6 16 8 4 3 2 3 8 4 2 3 3 4
54 Appendices Musical Temperaments
Tables of Frequencies and Intervals
Tones in the Individual Tunings
Degree Pure Pythag. Meantone Equal
Keynote 264 264.00 264.00 264.00
Second 297 297.00 295.16 296.33
Third 330 334.13 330.00 332.62
Fourth 352 352.00 353.09 352.40
Fifth 396 396.00 395.77 395.55
Sixth 440 445.50 441.37 443.99
Seventh 495 501.19 493.47 498.37
Octave 528 528.00 528.00 528.00
Musical Temperaments Appendices 55
Intervals in the Individual Tunings
Interval Pure Pythag. Meantone Equal
Keynote 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
Second 1.1250 1.1250 1.1180 1.1225
Third 1.2500 1.2656 1.2500 1.2599
Fourth 1.3333 1.3333 1.3375 1.3348
Fifth 1.5000 1.5000 1.4953 1.4983
Sixth 1.6667 1.6875 1.6719 1.6818
Seventh 1.8750 1.8984 1.8692 1.8877
Octave 2.0000 2.0000 2.0000 2.0000
56 Appendices Musical Temperaments
Frequency Ratios, Pure Tuning (as Fractions)
Interval Frequ. Frequ. Frequ. Frequ.
ratio ratio ratio ratio
with the with the with the with the
keynote inner inner inner
second third fifth
Keynote 1 9/8 5/4 3/2
Second 9/8 10/9 32/27 40/27
Third 5/4 16/15 6/5 3/2
Fourth 4/3 9/8 5/4 3/2
Fifth 3/2 10/9 5/4 3/2
Sixth 5/3 9/8 6/5 3/2
Seventh 15/8 16/15 6/5 64/45
Octave 2 9/8 5/4 3/2
Musical Temperaments Appendices 57
Frequency Ratios, Pythagorean Tuning (as
Fractions)
Interval Frequ. Frequ. Frequ.
ratio ratio ratio
with the with the with the
keynote inner inner
second third
Keynote 1 9/8 81/64
Second 9/8 9/8 32/27
Third 81/64 256/243 32/27
Fourth 413 9/8 81164
Fifth 3/2 9/8 81/64
Sixth 27/16 9/8 32/27
Seventh 243/128 256/243 32/27
Octave 2 9/8 81/64
Frequ.
ratio
with the
inner
fifth
3/2
3/2
3/2
3/2
3/2
312
10241729
3/2
58 Appendices Musical Temperaments
Frequency Ratios, Pure Tuning
Interval Frequ. Frequ. Frequ. Frequ.
ratio ratio ratio ratio
with the with the with the with the
keynote inner inner inner
second third fifth
Keynote 1.0000 1.1250 1.2500 1.5000
Second 1.1250 1.1250 1.1852 1.4815
Third 1.2500 1.0667 1.2000 1.5000
Fourth 1.3333 1.1250 1.2500 1.5000
Fifth 1.5000 1.1111 1.2500 1.5000
Sixth 1.6667 1.1250 1.2000 1.5000
Seventh 1.8750 1.0667 1.2000 1.4222
Octave 2.0000 1.1250 1.2500 1.5000
Musical Temperaments Appendices 59
Frequency Ratios, Pythagorean Tuning
Interval Frequ. Frequ. Frequ. Frequ.
ratio ratio ratio ratio
with the with the with the with the
keynote inner inner inner
second third fifth
Keynote 1.0000 1.1250 1.2656 1.5000
Second 1.1250 1.1250 1.1852 1.5000
Third 1.2656 1.0535 1.1852 1.5000
Fourth 1.3333 1.1250 1.2656 1.5000
Fifth 1.5000 1.1250 1,2656 1.5000
Sixth 1.6875 1.1250 1.1852 1.5000
Seventh 1.8984 1.0535 1.1852 1.4047
Octave 2.0000 1.1250 1.2656 1.5000
60 Appendices Musical Temperaments
Frequency Ratios, Meantone Tuning
Interval Frequ. Frequ. Frequ. Frequ.
ratio ratio ratio ratio
with the with the with the with the
keynote inner inner inner
second third fifth
Keynote 1.0000 1.1180 1.2500 1.4953
Second 1.1180 1.1180 1.1963 1.4953
Third 1.2500 1.0700 1.1963 1.4953
Fourth 1.3375 1.1180 1.2500 1.4953
Fifth 1.4952 1.1180 1.2500 1.4953
Sixth 1.6719 1.1180 1.1963 1.4953
Seventh 1.8692 1.0700 1.1963 1.4311
Octave 2.0000 1.1180 1.2500 1.4953
Musical Temperaments Appendices 61
Frequency Ratios, Equal Temperament
Interval Frequ. Frequ. Frequ. Frequ.
ratio ratio ratio ratio
with the with the with the with the
keynote inner inner inner
second third fifth
Keynote 1.0000 1.1225 1.2599 1.4983
Second 1.1225 1.1225 1.1892 1.4983
Third 1.2599 1.0595 1.1892 1.4983
Fourth 1.3348 1.1225 1.2599 1.4983
Fifth 1.4983 1.1225 1.2599 1.4983
Sixth 1.6818 1.1225 1.1892 1.4983
Seventh 1.8877 1.0595 1.1892 1.4142
Octave 2.0000 1.1225 1.2599 1.4983
62 Appendices Musical Temperaments
Operating Instructions
What are all the things you can do with the mouse?
In this electronic document you will find text passages that are
displayed in color. When you click such text passages with the
mouse, something usually happens. At some of these passages,
like at the one just given, an explanatory text will appear in a
secondary window. Sometimes a click of the mouse will also lead
you to another section of this document.
Sometimes the electronic document will have numbers that are
displayed in color, as for example, 264 Hz. When you click such
a marked number, you will hear a tone with the corresponding
frequency.
You will also find diagrams at some places in the document that
look approximately like the following (to the right is found a
loudspeaker symbol):
On this kind of diagram you can "play the piano." When you
click the single keys you will then hear the corresponding tones.
Sometimes dots appear on several of the keys, as in the
following example:

Musical Temperaments Appendices 63
In this case, not all of the keys work: only those that are marked
with dots will sound. In some cases only those keys with dots in
a particular color will work. The other keys with different
colored dots are "silent."
There are several other symbols in this document.
Most of these play intervals or scales when you click the
symbols. Here are some examples:
[ JJ] Plays single tones or intervals
[t] Plays several tones at the same time (chords)
[ Plays a scale
[ Plays two scales (in different tunings) staggered with
each other
[jil] Plays two scales (in different tunings) at the same time
through the two stereo channels
Navigating in the Document
This document offers all navigation aids that Windows-Help-
Files normally offer. At the upper edge of the main window you
see a "Toolbar" with several buttons.
Choosing the first button l.contentsl always brings you to the
table of contents of the document. The table of contents will
appear in a second window, while the first window with the
document that you have just been reading remains on the
screen. In this manner you can see an overview of the whole
contents of the document in one window and read individual
portions of the document in the other window.
As in most Windows programs, you can change the size of all
the windows. This is accomplished most easily as follows: click
the mouse on the "lower right-hand corner" of the window and
64 Appendices Musical Temperaments
then, while keeping the mouse depressed, drag it to change the
size of the window.
The secondary window with the table of contents at first shows
only the main headings of the document. You can see all the
other lower level headings if you click the button III in the
toolbar of the table of contents window. What you will see here
is the complete table of contents for the whole document. When
you click the III button, you will see again only the main
headings.
In the table of contents you will see next to the individual
chapter headings the following three different symbols:
I!l indicates that the corresponding section has no further
subsections, just text. When you click this symbol, the main
window will show the corresponding text. Thus, you can jump
from section to section in the document by simply clicking the
corresponding section heading in the table of contents window
with the Iil symbol.
indicates that the corresponding section contains further
subsections that are not at this point being displayed in the
table of contents window. By clicking this symbol you "open" the
corresponding section and the headings of the subsections will
then be displayed. At the same time, the symbol changes to
\til.
\til indicates that the corresponding section contains further
subsections. This kind of section does not contain any text; only
the further subsections contain the text. The lines after the
section heading contain the subsections.
In the toolbar of the table of contents window you will find still
further buttons:
III brings you from a subsection directly to the start of its main
section, that is, from a subordinate chapter to the heading of the
corresponding main chapter.
takes you from a section to the immediately following
section. In this way you can skip from "section to section."
Musical Temperaments Appendices 65
I ~ 1 takes you from a section back to the immediately preceding
section.
In the toolbar of the main window there are likewise several
buttons that fulfill particular functions when activated.
I bontents I brings the table of contents in a separate window.
I
Index I .
: opens a further wmdow, where you can search for
certain terms.
I a c k I takes you back to that section that you were reading
before you chose the current section. Multiple clicks on this
button brings you back further to earlier sections. This order of
succession does not have to follow the order of the table of
contents.
I Erint I prints the topic you are currently reading in the main
window .
.s< I takes you to the section immediately preceding the
section that you are currently reading. This button follows the
order of succession in the table of contents and not the order in
which you are reading the individual sections.
~ I
'------' takes you to the next section following the order in the
table of contents.
I g lossary I takes you to a glossary with the most important terms
and their explanations as used in this document.
I .!:!ints I takes you to the operating instructions that you are
now reading.
Sometimes the writing on a button is gray instead of black. You
see, for example, I _ac I instead ofl !tack I This is always the
case when this button fulfills momentarily no useful function.
For example, when you are just beginning to read the document
for the first time, you naturally cannot jump back to a
previously read section. Thus, this button will at this time have
no function to fulfill .
66 Appendices Musical Temperaments
When in the course of studying the document you wish the close
one of the opened windows, this is easily accomplished by
clicking on the "x mark" - a sign that looks approximately like
this -II in the upper right-hand comer of the window in
question.
Musical Temperaments Appendices 67
Glossary
Beats
If two tones with nearly the same frequency are played at the
same time, then one hears periodic variations in the intensity of
sound, known as beats. The frequency of these beats equals the
difference between the frequencies of both tones. If a tone of
330 Hz is played at the same time as a tone of 334 Hz, then one
should hear beats of 4 Hz: that is, the sound intensity should
increase and decrease 4 times per second.
The closer the frequencies, the slower the beats.
Chord
A chord is formed when more than one tone is played at the
same time.
Half Tone
One of the fundamental intervals in the building of scales. The
same interval as a minor second. A half tone is found on the
keyboard when two white keys lying next to each other have no
other key (that is, no black key) in between.
Two half tones are marked on the following keyboard:
--
Hertz
The number of beats per second. The abbreviation is Hz.
1 Hz equals one beat per second.
68 Appendices Musical Temperaments
Hz
The abbreviation for Hertz, that is, the number of beats per
second.
Inner Interval
In this document interval names like second, third, etc.,
normally refer to the degrees of the scale, that is, to the
intervals of the scale proceeding from the keynote as the
starting tone. However, we also study intervals that lie within a
chord whose keynote is not the keynote of the underlying scale.
We call this kind of interval an inner interval.
Example:
In the triad on the fourth
- -

the interval from the first to the second tone of the triad (that is,
the interval between the fourth and the sixth notes above the
keynote) is a third. We call this third an inner third since it is
not the same as the third above the keynote of the scale.
Major Triad
A chord composed of three tones. A major third lies between the
first and second tones, and a minor third between the second
and third tones. The first and third tones form a pure fifth.
Major Scale
A series of 8 tones. The interval between two successive tones is
made up of either a whole tone or a halftone. If we label the
whole tones "W" and the halftones "H", then the major scale
contains these intervals in the following order: WWHWWWH.
Musical Temperaments Appendices 69
Minor Triad
A chord composed of three tones. A minor third lies between the
first and second tones, and a major third between the second
and third tones. The first and third tones form a pure fifth.
Minor Scale
Series of 8 tones. The interval between two successive tones is
made up of either a whole tone or a halftone. Ifwe label the
whole tones "W" and the halftones "H", then the minor scale
contains these intervals in the following order:
WHWWHWW.
Overtone
A tone whose frequency is an integer multiple of the keynote's
frequency.
The first overtone has the frequency ofthe keynote multiplied
by two, the second overtone has this frequency multiplied by
three, etc.
A tone with a frequency of 660 Hz is, for example, the second
overtone of a tone with 220 Hz, as well as the fIfth overtone of a
keynote with 110 Hz.
Pythagorean Comma
The frequency ratio of 31\ 12/21\ 19 = 531441/524288 = 1.0136. If
you at first go up 12 pure fifths from the keynote and then drop
down 7 octaves, the resulting tone will be slightly higher than
the starting tone. The exact difference equals the Pythagorean
comma.
Not to be confused with the syntonic comma.
70 Appendices Musical Temperaments
Syntonic Comma
Frequency ratio of 81/80 = 1.0125.
Occurs as the difference between the following two tones:
Pure third above a keynote
Two seconds one after the other, starting from the same keynote
Not to be confused with the Pythagorean comma.
Whole Tone
One of the fundamental intervals in the building of scales. The
same interval as a major second. A whole tone is found on the
keyboard when two white keys lying next to each other are
separated by a black key (the black key is not sounded).
Two whole tones are marked on the following keyboard:

Selected further reading
Easly Blackwood
The Structure of Recognizable Diatonic Tunings
Princeton University Press
Mark Lindley, Ronald Turner-Smith
Mathematical Models of Musical Scales
Verlag fur systematische Musikwissenschaft
Springer-Verlag
and the Environment
WE AT SPRINGER-VERLAG FIRMLY BELIEVE THAT AN
international science publisher has a special obliga-
tion to the environment, and our corporate policies
consistently reflect this conviction.
WE ALSO EXPECT OUR BUSINESS PARTNERS- PRINTERS,
paper mills, packaging manufacturers, etc. - to commit
themselves to using environmentally friendly mate-
rials and production processes.
THE PAPER IN THIS BOOK IS MADE FROM NO-CHLORINE
pulp and is acid free, in conformance with inter-
national standards for paper permanency.