1.4. Theorems of Gauss, Green, and Stokes.

Recall the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:

b
a
F

(x) dx = F(b) F(a).

S
(integrand) dS =

S
(another integrand) d

V
(integrand) dV =

V
(another integrand) dS.
(1)
When S is a at surface, the formula is called Greens Theorem. When S is
curved, it is called Stokes Theorem. The volume integral is called Gauss Theorem.
Gauss Theorem. Let P(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
), Q(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
), R(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) and all their
partial derivatives be continuous in a given domain V with boundary V . Then

V
(
P
x
1
+
Q
x
2
+
R
x
3
)dV =

V
(P cos(n, x
1
) +Qcos(n, x
2
) +Rcos(n, x
3
)) dS.
Here n is the unit exterior normal to the surface V . The term (n, x
1
) represents
the angle between n and the x
1
-axis, etc.
Note that the domain V can have holes: V can be a shell (a ball with another
concentric, smaller ball removed, in which case the boundary of V consists of two dis-
joint parts: an exterior surface with normal pointing outside and an interior surface
with exterior unit normal pointing to the origin). The boundary V can be allowed
to be piecewise smooth. But the functions P(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
), Q(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
), R(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
and their derivatives are required to be continuous.
The more common form of Gauss Theorem is in vector form. Let
A = (P, Q, R).
Let the divergence of the vector A be
div A =
P
x
1
+
Q
x
2
+
R
x
3
.
Recall
n = (n
1
, n
2
, n
3
) = (cos(n, x
1
), cos(n, x
2
), cos(n, x
3
)).
Then Gauss Theorem can be written in vector form:

V
div AdV =

V
A ndS.
The proof of Gauss Theorem is omitted. We note that the divergence of a vector
determines the source or sink of the vector eld.
Greens Theorem. Given a planar region S bounded by a closed contour L.
Suppose that P(x
1
, x
2
) and Q(x
1
, x
2
) and all their partial derivatives are continuous
in the union S L. Then

S
(
Q
x
1

P
x
2
) dS =

S
P dx
1
+Qdx
2
,
where L is traversed in the direction such that S appears to the left of an observer
moving along L.
Stokes Theorem Given a surface S bounded by a closed contour L. Suppose
that all P, Q, R and their derivatives are continuous on the union of S L. Then

S
[(
R
x
2

Q
x
3
) cos(n, x
1
) + (
P
x
3

R
x
1
) cos(n, x
2
) + (
Q
x
1

P
x
2
) cos(n, x
3
)] dS
=

L
P dx
1
+Qdx
2
+Rdx
3
,
(2)
where n is the unit normal to S. Here L is traversed in the direction such that S
appears to the left of an observer moving along L with the vector n at points near
L pointing from the observers feet to his/her head.
(Figure 1.4.1. Orientations in Stokes Theorem)
L
S
Figure 1.4.1. Orientations in Stokes Theorem.
n
Stokes Theorem in vector form. If we let
A = (P, Q, R) = Pi
1
+Qi
2
+Ri
3
2
and dene
curl A = (
R
x
2

Q
x
3
,
P
x
3

R
x
1
,
Q
x
1

P
x
2
)
=

i
1
i
2
i
3

x
1

x
2

x
3
P Q R

,
then Stokes Theorem can be written as

S
curl A ndS =

S
A dr.
We see that the term

S
A dr is the total circulation of the vector eld A
along S. The term

S
curl A ndS is called the total ux of the vector eld curl A
through the surface S. In general the total ux of a vector W through a surface S
is dened as

S
W ndS.
See Figure 1.4.2.
(Figure 1.4.2. Denition of ux)
n
W
Figure 1.4.2. Flux of a vector field through a surface.
S
We will come back to the meaning of curl later. For now we note that the curl
of a vector determines the rotation of the vector eld. For a rigid body rotation, the
curl of the velocity eld is proportional to the angular velocity.
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Supplemental reading
1.4.1. Simply connected domains.
We emphasize that Stokes Theorem holds only when the vector eld A and its
curl are continuous on the union of the surface with its boundary. In general the
continuity condition is veried in a domain D that contains S. Sometimes one may
make mistakes in the relation of S with D. Let us consider the following question.
Let D be a domain. Suppose a vector A and all its derivatives are continuous
in D. Suppose further that curl A = 0 in D. Can we then use Stokes Theorem to
conclude that

L
A dr = 0 for any contour L within D?
The answer is yes if D is a solid ball or even a shell ( a shell is the region between
two concentric balls). But the answer is no if D is a torus. See Figure 1.4.3. To see
why, we imagine a contour L that goes along the long circle of the torus. Now it is
clear that we can not nd a surface S whose boundary is L and lies entirely in the
domain D. It may well be the case that the curl of A is not zero anymore outside
of D. In this case, we do not have a surface S to apply Stokess Theorem on.
(Figure 1.4.3. A torus.)
Figure 1.4.3. A torus and a contour that cannot shrink to a point within.
L
The dierence between a torus and a shell or a ball can be characterized as
follows. Any closed curve inside a ball can be shrunk within the ball to a point. But
not every closed curve inside a torus can be shrunk within the torus to a point.
Denition. A domain is called simply connected if any closed curve inside
the domain can be shrunk continuously to a point within the domain. A domain is
called multiply connected if some closed curves cannot be shrunk within the domain
to a point.
A torus is multiply connected. A ball is simply connected, so is a shell.
4
To see how a shell is simply connected, imagine a curve in a domain bounded by
two parallel innite planes. The curve can shrink within the plane to a point. Then
imagine bending the plate so that a portion of the plate forms a portion of a shell.
See Figure 1.4.4.
(Figure 1.4.4. Denition of ux)
Figure 1.4.4. A shell is simply connected.
Stokes Theorem applies to any contour L within a simply connected domain.
In particular, circulation of a vector eld along any closed curve within a simply
connected domain is zero if the vector eld and its curl are continuous and the curl
vanishes at every point in the domain.
End of Lecture 4
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