Vector Algebra and Calculus

1. Revision of vector algebra, scalar product, vector product

2. Triple products, multiple products, applications to geometry
3. Differentiation of vector functions, applications to mechanics
4. Scalar and vector fields. Line, surface and volume integrals, curvilinear co-ordinates
5. Vector operators grad, div and curl
6. Vector Identities, curvilinear co-ordinate systems
7. Gauss and Stokes Theorems, and extensions
8. Engineering Applications
 7. Gauss and Stokes Theorems

This lecture finally begins to deliver on why we introduced div, grad and curl by introducing ...
Gauss Theorem enables an integral taken over a volume to be replaced by one taken over the surface bounding
that volume, and vice versa.
Why would we want to do that?
Computational efficiency and/or numerical accuracy come to mind.
Stokes Theorem enables an integral taken around a closed curve to be replaced by one taken over any surface
bounded by that curve.
Gauss Theorem 7.2

Suppose that a(r) is a vector field, and we want to compute the

total ux of the eld across the surface S that boundsR a volume V :
S a dS

dS

dS is dS
1. normal to the local surface element dS dS
2. must everywhere point out of the volume

dS
Gauss Theorem tells us that we can do this by considering the total flux generated inside the volume V :
Gauss Theorem: R R
S a dS = V div a dV
Informal proof 7.3

Divergence was defined as

X
div a dV = d(Ef f lux) = a dS .
surface of dV

If we sum over the volume elements, this

results in a sum over the surface elements.
But if two elemental surface touch, their
dS vectors are in opposing direction and
cancel.

Thus the sum over surface elements gives the overall bounding surface.
Z Z
div a dV = a dS
V Surface of V
 Example of Gauss Theorem 7.4

and S is the surface of a sphere of radius R centred on the origin: (i) directly; (ii)
Q: Derive S a dS where a = z 3k
R

by applying Gauss Theorem.

3
z k

dS =
2 dz
R sin d d r z
R
R

and dS = R2 sin ddr. Everywhere r k

A(i): On the surface of the sphere, a = R3 cos3 k = cos . Hence
Z Z 2 Z
a dS = R3 cos3 . R2 sin dd . cos
S =0 =0
Z
5 4 2R5  5
 4R5
= 2R cos sin d = cos 0 =
0 5 5
Example /ctd 7.5

3
z k

A(ii): To apply Gauss Theorem, we need (i)

dS =
to work out div a 2 dz
diva = 3z 2
a = z 3k, R sin d d r z
R
R

(ii) Perform the volume integral. Because diva involves just z , we can divide the sphere into discs of constant z and
thickness dz . Then
dV = (R2 z 2)dz
So:
Z Z R
div adV = 3 z 2(R2 z 2)dz
V R
 2 3 R
R z z5 4R5
= 3 =
3 5 R 5
Typical: the surface integral is tedious, but volume integral is straightforward ...
An Extension to Gauss Theorem 7.6

Suppose vector field is a = U(r)c with U(r) a scalar field & c a constant vector. From Lecture 6 result and noting
that divc = 0:
div a = gradU c + Udiv c = gradU c
Gauss Theorem tells us that Z Z
Uc dS = grad U cdV
S V
But taking constant c outside ... Z  Z 
c UdS = c grad UdV
S V

Now c is arbitrary so result must hold for any vector c.

Hence, this Gauss-Theorem extension: R R
S UdS = V grad UdV
 Example using this extension to Gauss Theorem
z dS 7.7

Q: U = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 is a scalar field, and volume V is the cylinder x 2 + y 2 z=h

a2, 0 z h. Compute the surface integral S UdS over the surface of the
R

cylinder.

dS
z=0
By direct surface integration ...
Symmetry gives zero contribution from curved surface, leaving
Top face:

U = (x 2 + y 2 + z 2) = (r 2 + h2) and dS = r dr dk
Z Z a Z 2
UdS = 2 2
(h + r )r dr dk
 r =0 a =0
1 2 2 1 4 = [h2a2 + 1 a4]k

= h r + r 2 k
2 4 0 2
 Example /ctd 7.8

z
z=h

z=0

dS
Bottom face:
U = (x 2 + y 2 + z 2) = r 2 & dS = r dr dk
Z a Z 2 4
a
Z
UdS = 3
r dr dk=
k
r =0 =0 2
Total integral is 1 a4k
[h2a2 + 21 a4]k = h2 a2k.

2
Example, ctd: the volume integration 7.9
R R
To test the RHS of the extension S UdS = V grad UdV we have to compute
Z
grad UdV
V

U = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 grad U = 2(x + y + z k)
So the integral is:
Z
2 dr dz d
(x + y + z k)r
ZV h Z a Z 2
= 2 dr dz d
(r cos + r sin + z k)r
z =0 r =0 =0
Z h Z a Z 2
= 0 + 0 + 2 z dz r dr dk
z =0 r =0 =0

= a2h2k
Further extension to Gauss Theorem 7.10

Further extensions can be devised ...

For example, apply Gauss theorem to
a(r) = b(r) c
where c is a constant vector ...
... and see what happens.
Stokes Theorem 7.11

Stokes Theorem relates a line integral around a closed path ...

... to a surface integral over what is called a capping surface of the path.
Stokes Theorem: I Z
a dr = curl a dS
C S
where S is any surface capping the curve C.

R R
Note, RHS is of course (curl a) d S. Why couldnt it be curl(a d S)?
Informal proof 7.12

Lecture 5 defined curl as the circulation per unit area, and showed that
X
a dr = dC = ( a) dS .
around elemental loop

If we add these little loops together, the internal line sections cancel out because the drs are in opposite direction
but the field a is not. This gives the larger surface and the larger bounding contour.
y
ax (y+dy)
y+dy

ay (x+dx)
dy
ay (x)

dx
y x+dx
x

ax (y)

In these diagrams the countour appears planar. In general the contour is a non-intersecting space curve.
Capping Surface 7.13

The previous argument says that for a given contour, the capping surface can be ANY surface bound by the
contour.
Only requirement:
the surface element vectors point in the general direction of a r-h screw w.r.t. to the sense of the contour
integral.

Back

Front
Back

Front
In practice, (in exam questions?!) the bounding contour is often planar, and the capping surface either flat, or
hemispherical, or cylindrical.
 Example of Stokes Theorem 7.14

3 3
H Vector field a = x y and C is the circle of radius A centred on the origin.
Question:
Derive C a dr (i) directly and (ii) using Stokes with a planar surface.
Answer Direct: On the circle of radius A
a = A3( sin3 + cos3 )
and
dr = Ad( sin + cos )
so that:
2
3 4
I Z
a dr = A4(sin4 + cos4 )d = A,
C 0 2
since
2 2
3
Z Z
4
sin d = cos4 d =
0 0 4
Example /ctd 7.15
R
Answer Using Stokes theorem curla dS over planar disc ...
 

 k 

curl a =  x 
 = 3(x 2 + y 2 )k
= 3r 2k
y z
 y 3 x 3 0 
 

dS
We choose area elements to be circular strips of radius r thickness dr . Then
dS = r dr dk
Z 2 Z A
3 4
Z
curla dS = 3 d r 3 dr = A
A
S =0 r =0 2

r dr
An Extension to Stokes Theorem 7.16

Try similar extension with Stokes ...

Again let a(r) = U(r)c, where c is a constant vector. Then
curl a = Ucurl c + grad U c
But curl c is zero. Stokes Theorem becomes:
I Z Z
U(c dr) = grad U c dS = c (dS grad U)
C S S

Re-arranging and taking constant c out ...

I Z
c Udr = c gradU dS .
C S

But c is arbitrary and so

H R
An extension to Stokes: C Udr = S grad U dS
 Example of extension to Stokes Theorem 7.17

y
H d r = d
Question: Derive C Udr
where U = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 and r
C is the circle (x a)2 + y 2 = a2, z = 0, x
(i) directly and (ii) using Stokes with a planar capping surface. a

A(i) Directly: On the circle r = a(1 + cos ) + a sin , so

U = a2(1 + cos )2 + a2 sin2 = 2a2(1 + cos )
dr = a d( sin + cos ) .
So, I Z 2
3
Udr = 2a (1 + cos )( sin + cos )d = 2a3
=0
(It is worth checking that a zero component is indeed what you would expect from symmetry.)
Example /ctd 7.18

y dS= d d k
A(ii) Using Stokes ... Using the xy -planar surface
dS = d d k
grad U = gradr 2 = 2r r
x
= 2(a + cos ) + 2 sin , a
so that
dS gradU = d d[2(a + cos )(k ) + 2 sin (k
)]
= d d[2 sin + 2(a + cos )]

R 2 R 2
and as 0 sin d = 0 and 0 cos d = 0
Z Z a Z 2
dS gradU = d d(2a)
S =0 =0
2
a
= 2 (2a) = 2a3
2
I dont why understand why you used , in the last example ... 7.19

y y dS= d d k
dr
d

r r
x x
a a

It is simply a coordinate transformation to decouple the coordinates. In the plane the general position is
r = x + y = r cos + r sin = (a + cos ) + + sin
Going round the circumference, both r and change, so
dr = (cos dr r sin d) + (sin dr + r cos d)
whereas because || = a is constant
d = (a sin d) + (a cos d)
Summary 7.20

In this lecture, we have developed

Gauss Theorem
Z Z
div a dV = a dS
V S

If you sum up the (Effluxes) from each (Volume) in an object, you must end up with the overall efflux from the
surface.
Stokes Theorem I Z
a dr = curl a dS
C S

which says if you add up the (Circulations) per unit area over an open surface, you end up with the Circulation
around the rim
Weve seen how to verify and apply the theorems to simple surfaces and volumes using Cartesians, cylindrical and
spherical polars.