PHOTODIODE

A photodiode is a semiconductor diode that functions as a

photodetector. Photodiodes are packaged with either a window or
optical fibre connection, in order to let in the light to the sensitive part
of the device. They may also be used without a window to detect
vacuum UV or Xrays.
A phototransistor is in essence nothing more than a bipolar
transistor that is encased in a transparent case so that light can reach
the base-collector junction. The phototransistor works like a
photodiode, but with a much higher sensitivity for light, because the
electrons that are generated by photons in basecollector !unction are
in!ected into the base, this current is then amplified by the transistor
operation. A phototransistor has a slower response time than a
photodiode however.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION: -
A photodiode is a pn !unction or pin structure. "hen light with
sufficient photon energy strikes a semiconductor, photons can be
absorbed, resulting in generation of a mobile electron and electron
hole. #f the absorption occurs in the !unction$s depletion region, these
carriers are swept from the !unction by the built-in field of the
depletion region, producing a photocurrent.
Photodiodes can be used in either %ero bias or reverse bias. #n %ero
bias, light falling on the diode causes a voltage to develop across the
device, leading to a current in the forward bias direction. This is called
the photovoltaic effect, and is the basis for solar cells & in fact, a
solar cell is !ust a large number of big, cheap photodiodes.
'iodes usually have e(tremely high resistance when reverse biased.
This resistance is reduced when light of an appropriate fre)uency
shines on the !unction. *ence, a reverse biased diode can be used as
a detector by monitoring the current running through it. +ircuits based
on this effect are more sensitive to light than ones based on the
photovoltaic effect.
Avalanche photodiodes have a similar structure, however they are
operated with much higher reverse bias. This allows each photo-
generated carrier to be multiplied by avalanche breakdown, resulting
in internal gain within the photodiode, which increases the effective
responsivity of the device.
MATERIALS: -
The material used to make a photodiode is critical to defining its
properties, because only photons with sufficient energy to e(cite an
electron across the material$s bandgap will produce significant
photocurrents.
,aterials commonly used to produce photodiodes-
Material Wavelength range (nm)
.ilicon /012//11
3ermanium 4112/511
#ndium gallium arsenide 41126711
8ead sulfide 9/111:;11
<ecause of their greater bandgap, siliconbased photodiodes
generate less noise than germaniumbased photodiodes, but
germanium photodiodes must be used for wavelengths longer than
appro(imately / =m.
FEATURES: -
+ritical performance metrics of a photodiode include-
Rponsivity
The ratio of generated photocurrent to incident light power,
typically e(pressed in A>" when used in photoconductive mode. The
responsivity may also be e(pressed as a quantum efficiency, or the
ratio of the number of photogenerated carriers to incident photons,
thus a unitless )uantity.
Dark currnt
The current through the photodiode in the absence of any input
optical signal, when it is operated in photoconductive mode. The dark
current includes photocurrent generated by background radiation and
the saturation current of the semiconductor !unction. 'ark current
must be accounted for by calibration if a photodiode is used to make
an accurate optical power measurement, and it is also a source of
noise when a photodiode is used in an optical communication
system.
Nois-!uiva"nt po#r
?@APB The minimum input optical power to generate
photocurrent e)ual to the rms noise current in / *ert% bandwidth. The
related characteristic detectivity ?'B is the inverse of @AP, />@APC and
the specific detectivity ? B is the detectivity normali%ed to the area
?AB of the photodetector, . The @AP is roughly the
minimum detectable input power of a photodiode.
"hen a photodiode is used in an optical communication
system, these parameters contribute to the sensitivity of the optical
receiver, which is the minimum input power re)uired for the receiver
to achieve a specified bit error ratio.
APPLICATIONS: -
P@ photodiodes are used in similar applications to other
photodetectors, such as photoconductors, chargecoupled devices,
and photomultiplier tubes.
Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as
compact disc players smoke detectors, and the receivers for remote
controls in V+Ds and televisions.
#n other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios
?the ones that dim the display when its darkB and street lights,
photoconductors are often used rather than photodiodes, although in
principle either could be used.
Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light
intensity in science and industry. They generally have a better, more
linear response than photoconductors.
They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as
detectors for +omputed tomography ?coupled with scintillatorsB or
instruments to analy%e samples ?immunoassayB. They are also used
in <lood gas monitors.
P#@ diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary pn
!unction diodes, and hence are often used for optical
communications.
P@ photodiodes are not used to measure e(tremely low light
intensities. #nstead, if high sensitivity is needed, avalanche
photodiodes, intensified chargecoupled devices or photomultiplier
tubes are used for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy,
nightvision e)uipment and laser range finding.
PHOTOTRANITOR
Phototransistors are solidstate light detectors with internal gain that
are used to provide analog or digital signals. They detect visible,
ultraviolet and nearinfrared light from a variety of sources and are
more sensitive than photodiodes, semiconductor devices that re)uire
a preamplifier. Phototransistors feed a photocurrent output into the
base of a small signal transistor. Eor each illumination level, the area
of the e(posed collectorbase !unction and the '+ current gain of the
transistor define the output. The base current from the incident
photons is amplified by the gain of the transistor, resulting in current
gains that range from hundreds to several thousands. Desponse time
is a function of the capacitance of the collectorbase !unction and the
value of the load resistance. Photodarlingtons, a common type of
phototransistor, have two stages of gain and can provide net gains
greater than /11,111. <ecause of their ease of use, low cost and
compatibility with transistortransistor logic ?TT8B, phototransistors are
often used in applications where more than several hundred
nanowatts ?n"B of optical power are available.
.electing phototransistors re)uires an analysis of performance
specifications. +ollector current is the total amount of current that
flows into the collector terminal. +ollector dark current is the amount
of collector current for which there is no optical input. Typically, both
collector current and collector dark current are measured in milliamps
?mAB. Peak wavelength, the wavelength at which phototransistors are
most responsive, is measured in nanometers ?nmB. Dise time, the
time that elapses when a pulse waveform increases from /1F to 01F
of its ma(imum value, is e(pressed in nanoseconds ?nsB. +ollector
emitter breakdown voltage is the voltage at which phototransistors
conduct a specified ?nondestructiveB current when biased in the
normal direction without optical or electrical inputs to the base. Power
dissipation, a measure of total power consumption, is measured in
milliwatts ?m"B. Gther performance specifications for phototransistors
include spectral range, fall time, acceptance angle, and operating
temperature.
Phototransistors vary in terms of mounting and features. .urface
mount technology ?.,TB adds components to a printed circuit board
?P+<B by soldering component leads or terminals to the top surface
of the board. Typically, the P+< pad is coated with a pastelike
formulation of solder and flu(. Alevated temperatures, usually from an
infrared oven, melt the paste and solder the component leads to the
P+< pads. Through hole technology ?T*TB, another commonly used
mounting style, mounts components by inserting component leads
through holes in the board and then soldering the leads in place on
the opposite side of the board. #n terms of features, some
phototransistors include a cutoff filter that blocks visible light. Gthers
have an antireflective coating to improve light detection. 'evices with
a rounded dome lens instead of a flat lens are also available.