Photodiode

A photodiode is a semiconductor device with the junction that converts light energy into electrical
energy.

Principle of operation:

When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode near the junction depletion region, it is
absorbed and creates an electron–hole pair. This mechanism is also known as the
inner photoelectric effect. An electron is a negatively charged particle. A hole is the absence of an
electron, effectively acting as a positive charge. The PN junction within the photodiode has a built-
in electric field. This field separates the generated electron-hole pairs. Electrons are drifted towards
the N-side of the junction whereas holes are drifted towards the P-side of the junction. This
movement of charges constitutes an electric current, known as the photocurrent.

Construction:

P-N junction Photodiode, most basic type – cross-sectional view

The materials used for photodiode is silicon, germanium, indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs)
depending on the desired wavelength sensitivity.

A thin layer of P-type semiconductor is created on top of the N-type substrate. This can be achieved
through diffusion method. At the junction of the P and N regions, a depletion region is formed.
The charge carriers are immobile in this region. Metal contacts are deposited on both the P and N
sides to allow for electrical connections. The active area (the region where light is incident) may
be covered with an anti-reflective coating to minimize light reflection and maximize absorption.
The non-active area is often coated with an opaque material (SiO 2) to prevent unwanted light from
entering.

MODES OF OPERATION: PHOTOCONDUCTIVE MODE [REVERSE BIASED]

When the photodiode is reverse biased, an external voltage is applied to the P-N junction. The
negative terminal is connected to the positive P layer, and the positive terminal is connected to the
negative N layer. This causes the free electrons in the N layer to pull toward the positive terminal,
and the holes in the P layer to pull toward the negative terminal. When the external voltage is
applied to the photodiode, the free electrons start at the negative terminal and immediately fill the
holes in the P layer with electrons. This creates negative ions in the atoms with extra electrons.
The charged atoms then oppose the flow of free electrons to the P layer. Similarly, holes go about
the same process to create positive ions but in the opposite direction. When reverse biased, current
will only flow through the photodiode with incident light creating photocurrent.

The reverse bias causes the potential across the depletion region to increase and the width of the
depletion region to increase. This is ideal for creating a large area to absorb the maximum amount
of photons.

The response time is reduced by the reverse bias by increasing the size of the depletion layer. This
increased width reduces the junction capacity and increases the drift velocity of the carriers in the
photodiode.
Another benefit to reverse biased operation is the linear output (straight line in blue section
of Figure 1) of the photodiode with respect to the illumination. This simply means that the voltage
and current change linearly (directly proportional) with increasing optical power. The non -linearity
of the forward bias section (in green) can also be seen.
Figure 1: I-V Curve of Photodiodes. I0 is Dark Current. IP is photocurrent. P shows current
at different light levels (P0 is no incident light).

Key specification terms in Photodiode:

junction. It is the time needed for charge carriers to cross the P-N junction. This is directly
affected by the width of the depletion region.
2) Power Responsivity (R) is the ratio of photocurrent generated to that incident light power.
This is usually expressed in units of A/W (current over power).
3) Quantum Efficiency (𝜂) of a photodiode is the ratio of the number of electrons it produces

to the number of photons incident on it. It's a measure of how well a photodiode converts
photons into electrons. Quantum efficiency can vary significantly with wavelength.
 4) Dark current is the current in the photodiode when there is no incident light. This can be

one of the main sources of noise in the photodiode system. Photodiodes are usually put into
an enclosure that does not allow any light to hit the photodiode to measure the dark c urrent.
The ideal photodiode would have no dark current.
5) Breakdown Voltage is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the photodiode

before there is an exponential increase in leakage current. Photodiodes should be operated

Applications of Photodiode

• Photo diodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke detectors, compact disc
players, and televisions and remote controls.
• Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity of light in science
& industry. Generally, they have an enhanced, more linear response.
• Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like instruments to
analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography, and also used in blood gas monitors.
• These diodes are much faster & more complex than normal PN junction diodes and hence
are frequently used for lighting regulation and in optical communications.