Syllabus

Index


Unit 1. Introduction To Computers


Q. Define computer.
The word computer comes from the word compute which
means to calculate. A computer is an electronic device used for processing
data. It performs basically the following three operations-
Receives data(Input)
Process the data
Provides the result(Output)






Input: - The input stage is concerned with getting the data needed by the
program into the computer. Input devices are used to perform this task..
Commonly used input devices are mouse, keyboard.
Process: - The program contains instructions about what to do with the input.
During the process stage the computer follows these instructions using the data
which has just been input and produces the output
Output :- The output stage is concerned with giving out the processed data
in a form that is useful to the user . output devices are used to perform this
jobs. Commonly used output devices are monitor, printer.
Characteristics Of Computers:-
Q. Describe the characteristics of computers.
The computer is a powerful tool due to the following characteristics:
1. Automatic: A machine is said to be automatic if it works by
itself without human intervention .computers are automatic
machines because once started on a job , they carry on , until
the job is finished, normally without any human assistance.
2. Speed: A computer is a very fast device. It can perform in few
seconds, the amount of work that a human being can do in
entire year if he worked day and night and did nothing else.
That is a computer does in one minute what would take a man

Figure 1 A View of PARAM 10,000 Super
Computer developed by the Centre for
Development of Advanced Computing, Pune, which
has been installed at 12 institutions in the country.
his entire lifetime.
3. Accuracy: In addition to being very fast computers are very
accurate. The accuracy of computers is consistently high and
the degree of accuracy of a particular computer depends upon
its design. Errors can occur in a computer. However these are
mainly due to human rather than technological weaknesses.
For example computer errors due to incorrect input data.
4. Diligence: Unlike human being a computer is free from
monotony, tiredness and lack of concentration. It can
continuously work for hours without creating any errors and
without grumbling.
5. Versatility: It is an important characteristic of computer. One
moment it is preparing results of an examination, the other
moment it is busy preparing electricity bills and in between it
may help an office secretary to trace an important letter in
seconds. In short computer is capable of performing almost
any task, if the task is broken down into a series of logical
steps.
6. Power of remembering: A computer can store and recall any
amount of information because of its secondary storage
capability. Even after several years the information recalled
would be as accurate as on the day it was fed to the computer.
It is entirely up to the user to make a computer retain or forget
a particular information.
7. No I. Q.: A computer is not a magical device. It possesses no
intelligence of its own. Its I. Q. is zero. It has to be told what to
do and in what sequence. Only the user can determine what
tasks a computer will perform. A computer cannot take its own
decision.
8. No feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. They have no
feelings because the are machines
9. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Q. Discuss in detail the classification of computers. M06
Q. Write a detail note on classification of computers. M08
Q. State various types of computer. M07
Q. Discuss the classification of computers with suitable example. M07
Q. Differentiate between analog vs. digital computers. O06

The computers are classified in
the following categories
according to there processing
speed:-


Supercomputer
It is the fastest type of computer. Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of
mathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a
supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid
dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration.






Mainframes
A mainframe is simply a very large computer. And totally different from what
you have on your desk. Don't say: what seems to be a mainframe today is on
your desktop tomorrow. Apart from the CPU's (processors) that is far from
true. Mainframe is an industry term for a large computer. The name comes
from the way the machine is build up: all units (processing, communication
etc.) were hung into a frame. Thus the main computer is build into a frame,
therefore: Mainframe.
Their main purpose is to run commercial applications of large
businesses and other large-scale computing purposes. Think here of banking
and insurance businesses where enormous amounts of data are processed,
typically (at least) millions of records, each day.
The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a
supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as
possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs
concurrently.

Mini computers










Figure 1 Mark I mainframe (1950s)
Figure 3 A Mini computer





A minicomputer is a class of multi-user computers that lies in the middle
range of the computers, in between the largest multi-user systems(mainframe)
and the smallest single-user systems (microcomputers). This class of system is
also called as midrange computers. These are the computers, which are mostly
preferred by the small type of business personals, colleges, etc. and by large
enterprises for department-level operations.
Micro computers














This is the computer mostly preferred by the home users. These computers are
lesser in cost than the computers given above and also, small in size; they are
also called PCs in short for Personal computers. A microcomputer is a
computer with a microprocessor as its central processing unit.
This computer is small in size and you can easily arrange it to fit in your single
bedroom with its all accommodation. Today this is thought to be the most
popular computer in all.
Personal computers come in following major varieties, desktop computers,
laptop computers, palmtop / PDA and workstation / server:

Desktop computers
Desktop computers are larger and not meant
to be portable. They usually sit in one place on
a desk or table and are plugged into a wall
outlet for power. The case of the computer
holds the motherboard, drives, power supply,
and expansion cards. This case may lay flat on
the desk, or it may be a tower that stands
vertically (on the desk or under it). The
computer usually has a separate monitor
Figure 4 A Micro computer


(either a CRT or LCD) although some designs have a display built into
the case. A separate keyboard and mouse allow the user to input data
and commands.
Laptop computers
Laptop or notebook computers are small and lightweight enough to be
carried around with the user. They run on battery power, but can also
be plugged into a wall outlet. They typically have a built-in LCD
display that folds down to protect the display when the computer is
carried around. They also feature a built-in keyboard and some kind of
built-in pointing device (such as a touch pad). While some laptops are
less powerful than typical desktop machines, this is not true in all
cases. Laptops, however, cost more than desktop units of equivalent
processing power because the smaller components needed to build
laptops are more expensive.
PDAs and Palmtop Computers
A Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) is a handheld microcomputer that
trades off power for small size and greater portability. They typically
use a touch-sensitive LCD screen for both output and input (the user
draws characters and presses icons on the screen with a stylus). PDAs
communicate with desktop computers and with each other either by
cable connection, infrared (IR) beam, or radio waves. PDAs are
normally used to keep track of appointment calendars, to-do lists,
address books, and for taking notes.

A palmtop or handheld PC is a very small microcomputer that also
sacrifices power for small size and portability. These devices typically
look more like a tiny laptop than a PDA, with a flip-up screen and
small keyboard. They may use Windows CE or similar operating
system for handheld devices.
Some PDAs and palmtops contain wireless networking or cell phone
devices so that users can check e-mail or surf the web on the move.

Workstations/Servers
A workstation is a powerful, high-end microcomputer. They contain
one or more microprocessor CPUs. They may be used by a single-user
for applications requiring more power than a typical PC (rendering
complex graphics, or performing intensive scientific calculations).
Alternately, workstation-class microcomputers may b e used as server
computers that supply files to client computers over a network. This
class of powerful microcomputers can also be used to handle the
processing for many users simultaneously who are connected via
terminals; in this respect, high-end workstations have essentially
supplanted the role of minicomputers (see below).
The computers are classified in the following categories according to there
operating principles:-

Digital computers:
They operate essentially by counting all quantities. It operates on
data, including magnitudes, letters, and symbols, that are expressed in binary
formi.e., using only the two digits 0 and 1. By counting, comparing, and
manipulating these digits or their combinations according to a set of
instructions held in its memory, a digital computer can perform such tasks as
to control industrial processes and regulate the operations of machines;
analyze and organize vast amounts of business data; and simulate the behavior
of dynamic systems. Calculators are small computers specialized for
mathematical computations.
Analog computers:
They operate by measuring rather by counting. The name is derived
from the greek word analog which denotes that the computer functions by
establishing similarities between two quantities that are expressed as voltages
or currents. More generally an analog computer uses one kind of physical
quantity to represent the behavior of another physical system, or mathematical
function. A speedometer in your car is a common type of analog device.
Hybrid computers:
Hybrid computers are computers that comprise features of analog
computers and digital computers. The digital component normally serves as the
controller and provides logical operations, while the analog component normally
serves as a solver of differential equations.
Book pg 1,2,5


1. GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
Q. Explain the generations of computers
Q. Explain how various generations of computer differ from each other.
M07
Q. What is computer generation? Explain in detail various computer
generations. M06
The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different
generations of computing devices. A generation refers to the state of improvement in
the development of a product. This term is also used in the different advancements of
computer technology. With each new generation, the circuitry has gotten smaller and
more advanced than the previous generation before it. As a result of the
miniaturization, speed, power, and memory of computers have proportionally
increased. New discoveries are constantly being developed that affect the way we
live, work and play.
Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development
that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly
smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. Read about
each generation and the developments that led to the current devices that we use
today.
First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory,
and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. A vacuum tube is a fragile glass
device which used filaments as a source of electronic. It could amplify and control
electronic signals. Without any moving parts, vacuum tubes could take very weak
signals and make the signal stronger (amplify it). Vacuum tubes could also stop and
start the flow of electricity instantly (switch). A magnetic drum, also referred to as
drum, is a metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide material on which data and
programs can be stored. Magnetic drums were once used as a primary storage device
but have since been implemented as auxiliary storage devices. . Input was based on
punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of
electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First
generation computers relied on machine language to perform operations, and they
could only solve one problem at a time. Machine languages are the only languages
understood by computers
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing
devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business
client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.
Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of
computers. In 1947 three scientists, John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter
Brattain working at AT&T's Bell Labs invented what would replace the vacuum tube
forever. This invention was the transistor which functions like a vacuum tube in that
it can be used to relay and switch electronic signals. There were obvious differences
between the transistor and the vacuum tube. The transistor was faster, more
reliable, smaller, and much cheaper to build than a vacuum tube. One transistor
replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes. These transistors were made of solid
material, some of which is silicon, an abundant element (second only to oxygen)
found in beach sand and glass. Therefore they were very cheap to produce.
Transistors were found to conduct electricity faster and better than vacuum tubes.
They were also much smaller and gave off virtually no heat compared to vacuum
tubes.
Figure 1.1(b) pg 7
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for
output. Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to
symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions
in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time,
such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first
computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a
magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.
Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits
Transistors were a tremendous breakthrough in advancing the
computer. However no one could predict that thousands even now
millions of transistors (circuits) could be compacted in such a small
space. The integrated circuit, or as it is sometimes referred to as
semiconductor chip, packs a huge number of transistors onto a single
wafer of silicon. Robert Noyce of Fairchild Corporation and Jack

Kilby of Texas Instruments independently discovered the amazing attributes of
integrated circuits. Placing such large numbers of transistors on a single chip vastly
increased the power of a single computer and lowered its cost considerably.
Since the invention of integrated circuits, the
number of transistors that can be placed on a single
chip has doubled every two years, shrinking both the
size and cost of computers even further and further
enhancing its power. Most electronic devices today
use some form of integrated circuits placed on printed
circuit boards-- thin pieces of bakelite or fiberglass
that have electrical connections etched onto them --
sometimes called a mother board.

These third generation computers could carry out instructions in billionths of a
second. The size of these machines dropped to the size of small file cabinets. Yet,
the single biggest advancement in the computer era was yet to be discovered.
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Figure 1.1(c) pg 7
A chip is a small piece of semi conducting material(usually silicon) on which an
integrated circuit is embedded. A typical chip is less than -square inches and can
contain millions of electronic components (transistors). Computers consist of many
chips placed on electronic boards called printed circuit boards. There are different
types of chips. For example, CPU chips (also called microprocessors) contain an
entire processing unit, whereas memory chips contain blank memory.
Computer chips, both for CPU and memory, are composed of semiconductor
materials. Semiconductors make it possible to miniaturize electronic components,
such as transistors. Not only does miniaturization mean that the components take up
less space, it also means that they are faster and require less energy.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation
computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system,
which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central
program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible
to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of
integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. A silicon chip that contains a
CPU. In the world of personal computers, the terms microprocessor and CPU are
used interchangeably. At the heart of all personal computers and most workstations
sits a microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital
devices, from clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles.
Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:
Instruction Set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.

Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction.
Clock Speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many
instructions per second the processor can execute.
In both cases, the higher the value, the more powerful the CPU. For example, a 32-bit
microprocessor that runs at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bitmicroprocessor that
runs at 25MHz.
What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the
hand. The Intel 4004chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the
computer - from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on
a single chip.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to
form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth
generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld
devices
Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in
development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are
being used today.
Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with making
computers behave like humans. The term was coined in 1956 by John Mc Carthyat
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Artificial intelligence includes:
Games Playing: programming computers to play games such as chess and
checkers
Expert Systems: programming computers to make decisions in real-life situations
(for example, some expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases based on
symptoms)
Natural Language: programming computers to understand natural human
languages
Neural Networks: Systems that simulate intelligence by attempting to reproduce the
types of physical connections that occur in animal brains
Robotics: programming computers to see and hear and react to other sensory
stimuli
Currently, no computers exhibit full artificial intelligence (that is, are able to simulate
human behavior). The greatest advances have occurred in the field of games playing.
The best computer chess programs are now capable of beating humans. In May,1997,
an IBM super-computer called Deep Blue defeated world chess champion Gary
Kasparov in a chess match.
In the area of robotics, computers are now widely used in assembly plants, but they
are capable only of very limited tasks. Robots have great difficulty identifying objects
based on appearance or feel, and they still move and handle objects clumsily.
Natural-language processing offers the greatest potential rewards because it would
allow people to interact with computers without needing any specialized knowledge.

You could simply walk up to a computer and talk to it. Unfortunately, programming
computers to understand natural languages has proved to be more difficult than
originally thought. Some rudimentary translation systems that translate from one
human language to another are in existence, but they are not nearly as good as human
translators.
Book pg 9-12
2. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTERS
Q. Explain the organization of a digital computer
Q. Describe the block diagram of a digital computer
Q. Draw block diagram of computer organization. Explain each component
and its function. M08

1. Input unit:- Data and instructions must enter the computer system
before any computation can be performed . This task is performed by
the input unit which links the external environment with the computer
system. All input devices transform the input data into the binary
codes which primary memory of a computer is designed to accept.
The following functions are performed by the input unit:-
It accepts the instructions and data from outside world
It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable
form
It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer
system for further processing

2. Output unit:- The job of an output unit is just the reverse of that of an
input unit. It supplies the information obtained from the processing
unit to the outside world. It links the computer with the external
environment. The results produced are in binary form. Before
supplying these results to the outside world they must be converted to
human acceptable form. This task is performed by the output unit.
The following functions are performed by the output unit:-
It accepts the result produced by the computer which is in
code form.
It converts the coded result in human acceptable form.
It supplies the converted result to the outside world.

3. Storage unit:- The data and instructions entered into the computer
system have to be stored inside the computer before the actual
processing starts. The storage unit provides space for storing data and
instructions, intermediate results and space for the final result. The
storage unit is comprised of the following two types
Primary storage: It is also known as main memory. It is
used to hold pieces of program instructions and data,
intermediate results and final results. While the information
remains in the main memory, the CPU can access it directly
at a very fast speed. The primary storage can hold the
information only while the computer system is on. As soon
as the system is switched off or reset, the information in the

primary storage disappears. The primary storage has limited
capacity because it is very expensive.
Secondary storage: It is also known as auxiliary storage. It
is used to take care of the limitations of primary storage. It
is used to supplement the limited storage capacity and the
volatile characteristics of primary storage. The secondary
storage is normally used to hold the program, data and
information on which the computer system is not working
on currently but needs to hold them for processing later.

4. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):- it is a place where actual execution of
instructions takes place. Calculations and all comparisons are done in
the ALU. Data and instructions stored in a primary storage before
processing are transferred as and when needed to the ALU. All ALU
are designed to perform the four basic arithmetic operations such as
add, subtract, divide and multiply and logical operations such as
less than, equal to and greater than.

5. Control Unit: - How does the input device know that it is time for it to
feed data into the storage unit. How does the ALU know that what
should be done with the data once they are received. How is it that
only the final results are sent to the output device and not the
intermediate result? All this is possible due to the control unit of the
computer system. It does not perform any actual processing on the
data. The control unit acts as a central nervous system for the other
components of the system. It manages and coordinates the entire
computer system. It obtains instructions from the program stored in
the main memory, interprets the instructions and issues signals which
cause other units of the system to execute them.

6. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The control unit and the arithmetic
logic unit are jointly known as the CPU. The CPU is the brain of the
computer system. In a human body all major decisions are taken by
the brain and the other parts of the body function as directed by the
brain. Similarly in a computer system all major calculation and
comparison are made inside the CPU. The CPU is responsible for
activating and controlling the operations of other units of the
computer system.

Figure 2.1 pg 16
Pg 13,14, figure
3. HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
Q. Hardware and software are two sides of the same coin. Explain. M04
Hardware

As we learned in the Overview portion of the study guide, a computer system
has two basic parts: hardware and software. The equipment associated with a
computer system is the hardware. Computer hardware is responsible for
performing four basic functions: input, processing, output, and storage. Lets
go back to the basic definition of a computer. A computer is an electronic
device that is programmed to accept data (input), process it into useful
information (output), and store it for future use (storage). The processing
function is under the control of a set of instructions (software).
Software
As important as hardware devices may be, they are useless without the
instructions that control them. These instructions used to control hardware and
accomplish tasks are called software. Software falls into two broad
categories applications and systems software.
Relationship between Hardware and Software:
For a computer to produce useful output its hardware and software must work
together. Nothing useful can be done with the hardware on its own, and the
software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware
To take an analogy, a cassette player and its cassettes purchased from the market
are hardware. The songs recorded on the cassettes are its software. Following are
the important points regarding relationship between hardware and software:
1. Both hardware and software are necessary for a computer to do
useful job. Both are complementary to each other.
2. Same hardware can be loaded with different software to make
computer perform different types of jobs just as different songs can
be played using the same cassette player.
3. Except for upgrades hardware is normally a one time expense,
whereas software is a continuing expense
Types of Software
As important as hardware devices may be, they are useless without the
instructions that control them. These instructions used to control hardware and
accomplish tasks are called software. Software falls into two broad
categories applications and systems software.
Applications software allows you to perform a particular task or solve a
specific problem. A word processor is the most widely used example of
applications software; it can be used to create a letter or memo or anything
else you need to type. Other examples include games, spreadsheets, tax
preparation programs, typing tutor, etc. Applications software can be
purchased in stores and is called packaged or commercial software. In other
words, it is prewritten. However, there may be situations that require a specific
type of software that is not available. It would then be necessary to design and
write a program; this software is called custom software. Most often, personal

computers utilize packaged software.
When packaged software is purchased, it will come with written instructions
for installation and use. These instructions are documentation. Packaged
software can be purchased, or in some cases, it is available for no cost.
Freeware is software considered to be in the public domain, and it may be
used or altered without fee or restriction. Another form of somewhat free
software is shareware. The author of shareware hopes you will make a
voluntary contribution for using the product.
Task-oriented software is sometimes called
productivity software, because it allows you to perform tasks that make you
more productive. The major categories of productivity software are word
processing, spreadsheet, database management, graphics, and
communications. Most often these categories of software are bundled together
and sold as a single package. This is called an office suite. A suite is designed
to work together. This is very important because this allows you to share files.
Another advantage in using suites is that the software looks similar and
reduces your learning curve. Microsoft Office is the most popular office suite
for the personal computer today. Two other important office suite products are
Corels WordPerfect Office Suite and Suns Star Office Suite.
The most important applications software categories included in office suites
are described in the table below:
Software Category Function
Word Processor Provides the tools for entering and revising text, adding
graphical elements, formatting and printing documents.
Spreadsheets Provides the tools for working with numbers and allows
you to create and edit electronic spreadsheets in managing
and analyzing information.
Database Management Provides the tools for management of a collection of
interrelated facts. Data can be stored, updated, manipulated,
retrieved, and reported in a variety of ways.
Presentation Graphics Provides the tools for creating graphics that represent data
in a visual, easily understood format.
Communication Software Provides the tools for connecting one computer with
another to enable sending and receiving information and
sharing files and resources.

Internet Browser Provides access to the Internet through a service provider
by using a graphical interface.
As important as applications software may be, it is not able to directly
communicate with hardware devices. Another type of software is required
operating systems software. Operating Systems software is the set of
programs that lies between applications software and the hardware devices.
Think of the cross section of an onion. The inner core of the onion represents
the hardware devices, and the applications software represents the outside
layer. The middle layer is the operating systems software. The instructions
must be passed from the outer layer through the middle layer before the
reaching the inner layer.

INPUT DEVICES
Q. Define input devices. Explain any two input devices. M07
Q. Give various types of input devices. M06
Q. Explain the following:
1. OCR
2. MICR
3. OMR M06

An Input device is an electromechanical device which accepts data from the outside world
in a form that the computer can utilize. Also, the input devices send the data or instructions to the
processing unit to be processed into useful information. There are many examples of input
devices. They can be classified into the following categories:-
o Keyboard devices
In computing, a keyboard is an input device, partially modeled after
the typewriter keyboard, which uses an arrangement of buttons or
keys, which act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. A
keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys
and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written
symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and
holding several keys simultaneously or in sequence. While most

keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters), other
keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or computer
commands.
In normal usage, the keyboard is used to type text and numbers into
a word processor, text editor or other program. In a modern
computer, the interpretation of keypresses is generally left to the
software. A computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key
from every other and reports all keypresses to the controlling
software. Keyboards are also used for computer gaming, either with
regular keyboards or by using keyboards with special gaming
features, which can expedite frequently used keystroke
combinations. A keyboard is also used to give commands to the
operating system of a computer, such as Windows' Control-Alt-
Delete combination, which brings up a task window or shuts down
the machine.

o Pointing devices
A pointing device is an input interface (specifically a human interface
device) that allows a user to input spatial (ie, continuous and multi-
dimensional) data to a computer. CAD systems and graphical user
interfaces (GUI) allow the user to control and provide data to the
computer using physical gestures point, click, and drag for
example, by moving a hand-held mouse across the surface of the
physical desktop and activating switches on the mouse. Movements of
the pointing device are echoed on the screen by movements of the
pointer (or cursor) and other visual changes.
While the most common pointing device is the mouse, many more
devices have been developed.
Based on motion of an object
Mouse
A mouse is a small handheld device pushed over a horizontal surface.A
mouse moves the graphical pointer by being slid across a smooth
surface. The conventional roller-ball mouse uses a ball to create this
action: the ball is in contact with two small shafts that are set at right
angles to each other. As the ball moves these shafts rotate, and the
rotation is measured by sensors within the mouse. The distance and
direction information from the sensors is then transmitted to the
computer, and the computer moves the graphical pointer on the screen
by following the movements of the mouse. Another common mouse is
the optical mouse. This device is very similar to the conventional mouse
but uses visible or infrared light instead of a roller-ball to detect the

changes in position.
Trackball

A trackball is a pointing device similar to a mouse which consists
of a ball housed in a socket containing sensors to detect rotation of the
ball about two axes, similar to an upside-down mouse: as the user rolls
the ball with a thumb, fingers, or palm the mouse cursor on the screen
will also move. Trackballs are commonly used on CAD workstations for
ease of use, where there may be no desk space on which to use a mouse.
Some are able to clip onto the side of the keyboard and have buttons
with the same functionality as mouse buttons. A trackball comes in
various shapes. The three common shapes are a ball, a button, and a
square.

Based on touching a surface
Joystick
A lever that moves in all directions and controls the movement of a
pointer or some other display symbol. A joystick is similar to a mouse,
except that with a mouse the cursor stops moving as soon as you stop
moving the mouse. With a joystick, the pointer continues moving in the
direction the joystick is pointing. To stop the pointer, you must return
the joystick to its upright position. Most joysticks include two buttons
called triggers.
Joysticks are used mostly for computer games, but they are also used
occasionally for CAD/CAM systems and remote control of industrial
robots.

Light pen
An input device that utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select objects on a
display screen. A light pen is similar to a mouse, except that with a light pen
you can move the pointer and select objects on the display screen by directly
pointing to the objects with the pen. Movement of the pen causes the
graphical cursor on the screen to move. Applying pressure on the tip causes
same action as left button click and keeping the tip pressed for a short
duration causes same action as right button click. A user can also draw
graphics directly on the screen with it.
Touchscreen
A touch screen is a computer display screen that is also an input
device. The term generally refers to touch or contact to the display of the
device by a finger or hand. The screens are sensitive to pressure; a user
interacts with the computer by touching pictures or words on the screen. . A
Touchscreen is a device embedded into the screen of the TV Monitor, or
System LCD monitor screens of laptop computers. It could consist by invisible
sensor grid of touch-sensible wires drowned in a crystal glass positioned in
front of real monitor screen, or it could consist of an infrared controller
inserted into the frame surrounding the monitor screen itself.
Examples of touch screens include a smart board, a microwave, a dishwasher,
or an ATM at a bank.
o Data scanning devices
Data scanning devices are input devices used for direct data entry into a
computer system from source documents. Some of them are also capable of
recognizing marks or characters.commonly used data scanning devices are discussed

below
Image scanner
An image scanner is an input device that optically scans images, printed text,
handwriting, or an object, and converts it to a digital image. It is very useful
for preserving paper documents in electronic form. Common examples found
in offices are variations of the desktop (or flatbed) scannerand Hand-held
scanners
Flatbed scanner
A type of scanner which is like a copier machine that consists of a glass plate on its
top and a lid that covers the glass plate. The documents to be scanned are placed
upside down on this glass plate. A light source situated below the glass plate moves
horizontally from one end to another when activated. Flatbed scanners are
particularly effective for bound documents.
Hand-held scanners
A handheld or portable optical scanner is an image scanner which is designed to be
moved by hand across the object or document being scanned. Today, a hand
scanner is extensively used with a personal computer or a word processor as an
image inputting device for optically reading image data out of a document by being
operated by hand. A handheld scanner comes in document or 3D forms. The scanner
produces light from green LEDs which highlight and scan the image onto a computer
to be viewed. An image scanner can also be 3D, and these scanners are now the
most popular form of hand scanners on the market today. These image scanners are
able to compensate for the uneven movements of the hand by relying on placement
of reference markers to mark correct positions.

Optical character recognition (OCR) device
Optical character recognition (OCR) is a process of capturing an image of a
document and then extracting the text from that image. With the help of
optical character recognition (OCR) software, data placed on a form can be
digitized by the OCR device and the digitized data can be interpreted as text
by the OCR software. The OCR software converts the bit map images of
characters to equivalent ASCII key code i.e., the scanner first creates the
bitmap image of the document and then the OCR software translates the
array of grid points into ASCII text which the computer can interpret as
letter, numbers and special characters.
Example of using optical character input:
Converting paper records into electronic files.
Scanning invoices into spreadsheets
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
Optical Mark Recognition (also called Optical Mark Reading
or OMR) is the process of capturing human-marked data
from document forms like surveys and tests. This device is
designed to be able to read markings that have been
placed in specific places on a form or card. The person
filling out the form/card will either colour in a series of
small squares or perhaps make a cross within the square.
The device then scans the card and senses where marks
have been placed. Optical Mark Readers are much faster,
more accurate and easier to operate. Many traditional
OMR devices work with a dedicated scanner device that
shines a beam of light onto the form paper. The
contrasting reflectivity at predetermined positions on a
page is then utilized to detect the marked areas because
they reflect less light than the blank areas of the paper.
Lottery tickets are a form of input that an optical
mark reader uses to input data.
The lottery card has a number of small squares printed on it that you colour in or
mark with a dark pen.
The input reader senses those dark squares and converts them into the lottery
number you have selected.
Example of optical mark input:
Lottery ticket
Official forms

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
The problem with an OCR device is as follows
A standard OCR device relies on high contrast between the paper and the ink itself.
This is often not the case! Paper can be grubby or crinkled, or the ink may be
smudged. Also the huge number of fonts that people like to use makes it a very tricky
task to read text with 100% accuracy.
The MICR device solves the problem as follows
Text is printed with a special magnetic ink so the reader no longer relies on
simple contrast.
Text is also printed in a special font that makes it much easier for the
machine to tell characters apart.
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition, or MICR, is a character recognition
technology adopted mainly by the banking industry to facilitate the processing of
cheques. Banks make extensive use of this technology. The combination of magnetic
ink and special font allows thousands of bank cheques to be scanned per hour.
Barcode Reader
A barcode reader, also called a price scanner or point-of-sale (POS) scanner, is
a hand-held or stationary input device used to capture and read information
contained in a bar code. A barcode reader consists of a scanner, a decoder
(either built-in or external), and a cable used to connect the reader with a
computer. Because a barcode reader merely captures and translates the
barcode into numbers and/or letters, the data must be sent to a computer so
that a software application can make sense of the data.A barcode reader works
by directing a beam of light across the bar code and measuring the amount of
light that is reflected back. (The dark bars on a barcode reflect less light than
the white spaces between them.) The scanner converts the light energy into
electrical energy, which is then converted into data by the decoder and
forwarded to a computer.
There are five basic kinds of barcode readers -- pen wands, slot scanners,
Charge-Couple Device (CCD) scanners, image scanners, and laser scanners.
Pg 15-37

4. Programming and Flowchart Concepts
What is Programming?
The process of instructing or telling a computer what to do is called computer
programming. It involves writing valuable, sustainable, extensible commands that can
be read by a computing system to do a significant task. Programming can be achieved
using one or some of the different languages dubbed as programming languages. Since
one instruction is not enough for a computer to perform something substantial, you need
to come up with a set of instructions, known as programs, and submit it to the computer
to be able to complete a task. For beginners, learning programming concepts as well as
the processes in making computer programs isn't a piece of cake; it requires know-how
and programming skills.
The lowest form of coding a novice programmer like you can do is the machine code.
This code is written in binary and it uses a series of "0's" and "1's". But just because it is
know as the lowest form of code doesn't mean it is the easiest to do. Higher code forms
like Java, C, and C are made to make it easier for anyone to learn and use compared the
machine code.
For the newbies to know what they should expect from their chosen field, here are the
procedures involved in computer programming:
1. Developing a program In this stage, the programmer, whether novice or experienced,
usually work with internet marketers, sociologists, or other individuals to find out the
program needed by the market to be able to work better at home or in the workplace.
The features of the programs are then created from the suggestions of the other people
involved. It is the programmer who'll determine the feasibility of the suggested features.
2. Choosing the Right Language Depending on the programs you need to develop and
your knowledge of the language, you now need to select the right language you will
use. Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) and Hypertext Preprocessor (PHP) are the
two Internet languages commonly used by programmers. HTML is ideal if you are
developing a basic web page while PHP are for the applications or things that you
actually don't see happening. Other languages you can use are CSS, Visual Basic,
MySQL, C, C, Java, and many others. Programmers frequently use different languages
in a single program since each of them has unique functions.
3. Writing the script or coding the program Once the features of a certain program are
made final, the programmer should now start working on it. This involves coding the
program or writing the script to perform particular actions by means of a computer
language.
4. Testing the program After coding the program, it needs to be tested before it will be released.
Programmers usually apply this program in various operating systems to test its ability to
function. If the program works well, it will then be released in beta version.

5. Troubleshooting errors Along with the release of the program's beta version, is a request for
users to report any bugs or errors they encounter so they can be fixed right away.
6. Computer programming is by no mean easy. You need to be armed first with the basics before
you should move on to the next and more crucial step.
Usually a set of instructions, or program, for a computer is intended to complete a task that:
is repetitious, and therefore would exceed human patience or capacity for long term
attention to detail;
controls machinery in conditions unsuitable for humans because of physical
limitations, hazardous conditions, etc.;
requires a high degree of accuracy;
requires high speed.

Algorithm
A set of steps for carrying out a specific task. Algorithms are used extensively in computer
programming to arrive at a solution for a problem. The process of creating an algorithm
involves documenting all the necessary steps needed to arrive at the solution and how to
perform each step. A real world example of an algorithm would be a recipe. The instructions
of a typical recipe (add ingredients, mix, stir, etc.) are an algorithm.
A simple example of an algorithm is:

An Algorithm: Baking a Cake
Algorithm: A predetermined series of instructions for carrying out a task
in a finite number of steps.
Source code
The actual text used to write the instructions for a computer program. This text is then
translated into something meaningful the computer can understand.
Compiler
A software tool that translates source code into data that the computer can understand.
Specifically, a compiler is used to turn source code into object code. The object code is then
passed through a program called a linker which turns it into an executable program.
Data type
The classification of pieces of information in a program. The amount of different data types
varies between languages. Typically, there are data types for integers (whole numbers),
floating-point numbers (numbers with a decimal part), and single characters. To distinguish
between different data types, a computer uses special internal codes.
Variable
A container which represents a value in a program. Variables can store different types of data
including numeric values, single characters, and text strings. The value of a variable can
change all throughout a program.
Constant
The same thing as a variable with one major difference - the value of a constant does not
change, while the value of a variable can change all throughout a program.
Conditional
A set of code that will execute only if a cetain condition is true. Conditionals are used to test
expressions and perform certain operations accordingly. For example, you could test a
number input by the user and if it is too high print the message "The number entered is to
high" and the program exits. Thanks to conditionals, a program can work differently every
time it runs.
Array
A special type of variable used in many programming and web languages including PHP,
Javascript, and Java that contains a list of related values. For example, a colors array would
contain a list of colors.
Loop
A segment of code that executes repeatedly based on a certain condition. Loops are used to
perform tasks repeatedly a certain amount of times. For example, if you needed to print the
numbers 1 to 10. You can use a loop for this task instead of manually printing all the
numbers.
Function
A set of code used to carry out specific tasks. A function can take parameters which will
effect its output as well as return values. Functions prevent unneccesary redundancy because
you can use them as much as needed instead of retyping some code over and over. For
example, if you need to multiply two numbers, instead of doing the calculation manually
every time, you can supply the data to a function through some parameters which will do it
for you.
Class
A template for a real world object to be used in a program. For example, a programmer can
create a car class which represents a car. This class can contain the properties of a car (color,
model, year, etc.) and functions that specify what the car does (drive, reverse, stop, etc.).
Classes are used in object-oriented programming.

One intermediate step is almost always used between the algorithm and the program. It is
called a flowchart. A flowchart is simply a symbolic representation of the algorithm
expressed as a sequence of rectangles and diamonds containing the steps of the algorithm.
Rectangles are used for commands, or "executable statements". Diamonds are used
for tests such as: If information X is true, then take action A, else B. Instead of presenting a
formal definition of flowcharts at this point, we will introduce and discuss flowcharts later on
in this book when we present programs.
Computer program flowchart sample :
A picture is worth more than thousand of words. so lets look at first flowchart sample. This sample
calculates sum of numbers from 1 to N.



PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE CONCEPTS


Q. Describe the various types and uses of programming languages. M07
Q. What do you mean by programming language. Explain any two computer programming
languages. O06
A language is a means of communication. A computer language is used for communication
between the user and the computer. With the help of a computer language a programmer tells
the computer what he wants the computer to do. Programming language is a vocabulary and set
of grammatical rules for instructing a computer to perform specific tasks. The difference
between the human language and computer language is that human languages have a very large
vocabulary while computer language does not. The grammatical rules of a computer language
are called syntax. The programming languages can be classified in the following categories:-
Machine Language
Assembly Language
High Level Language
They are discussed below in detail
Machine Language:-
Figure 1214 Hierarchy of programming languages relative to computer hardware.
Thomas L. Floyd
Digital Fundamentals, 9e
Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

Machine language the lowest-level programming language is a
collection of binary digits or bits that the computer reads and interprets. Machine
languages are the only languages understood by computers. While easily
understood by computers, machine languages are almost impossible for humans to
use because they consist entirely of numbers. Machine language codes vary from
computer to computer.
Figure : Machine code instruction format
The general form of a machine code instruction is illustrated in Figure with the bits
making up the instruction being grouped into opcode and operand fields.
A Machine language program instruction may look like this:
1011000111101
The opcode field contains a binary code that specifies the operation to be carried
out (e.g. add, jmp ). Each operation has its own unique opcode. The operand field
specifies the operand or operands that the operation is to be carried out on.
Advantage
The only advantage is that program of machine language run very fast
because no translation program is required for the CPU.
Disadvantages
1. It is very difficult to program in machine language. The programmer has to
know details of hardware to write program.
2. The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a program which
results in program errors.
3. It is difficult to debug the program.
Assembly Language:-
Assembly language is one level above machine language. It uses short
mnemonic codes (a symbol used for some code or function is called a mnemonic) for
instructions and allows the programmer to introduce names for blocks of memory
that hold data. One might thus write add pay, total instead of
0110101100101000 for an instruction that adds two numbers. Assembly language
is designed to be easily translated into machine language. An assembler is used to
translate assembly language statements into the target computer's machine code.
Assembler:
An assembler is a program that takes assembly language
program instructions and converts them into a pattern of bits that the

computer's processor can use to perform its basic operations. Some people
call these instructions assembler language and others use the term assembly
language.
Advantages:
1. T
h
e

s
y
m
b
o
l
i
c programming of Assembly Language is easier to understand and
saves a lot of time and effort of the programmer.
2. It is easier to correct errors and modify program instructions.
3. Assembly Language has the same efficiency of execution as the
machine level language. Because this is one-to-one translator
between assembly language program and its corresponding
machine language program.
Disadvantages:
1. One of the major disadvantages is that assembly language is
machine dependent. A program written for one computer might not
run in other computers with different hardware configuration.
High Level Language
Because of the difficulty of working with low-level languages, high-level
languages were developed to make it easier to write computer programs.
High level programming languages create computer programs using
instructions that are much easier to understand than machine or assembly
language code because you can use words that more clearly describe the
task being performed. Examples of high-level languages include FORTRAN,
COBOL, BASIC, PASCAL, C, C++ and JAVA.
It is machine-independent programming language. It lets the
programmer concentrate on the logic of the problem to be solved rather
than the intricacies of the machine architecture such as is required with low-
level assembly languages. In comparison to low-level programming
languages, it may use natural language elements, be easier to use, or be
more portable across platforms.
Interpreter
An interpreter is another type of program translator used for translating higher level
Figure 1215 Assembly to machine conversion using an assembler.
Thomas L. Floyd
Digital Fundamentals, 9e
Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

language into machine language. It takes one statement of higher level languages,
translate it into machine language and immediately execute it. Translation and
execution are carried out for each statement. It differs from compiler, which translate
the entire source program into machine code and does involve in its execution.
The advantage of interpreter compared to compiler is its fast response to changes in
source program. It eliminates the need for a separate compilation after changes to
each program. Interpreters are easy to write and do not require large memory in
computer. The disadvantage of interpreter is that it is time consuming method because
each time a statement in a program is executed then it is first translated. Thus
compiled machine language program runs much faster than an interpreted program
Compiler
It is a program translator that translates the instruction of a higher level language to
machine language. It is called compiler because it compiles machine language
instructions for every program instructions of higher level language. Thus compiler is
a program translator like assembler but more sophisticated. It scans the entire program
first and then translates it into machine code.
The programs written by the programmer in higher level language is called source
program. After this program is converted to machine languages by the compiler it is
called object program.
A compiler can translate only those source programs, which have been written, in
that language for which the compiler is meant for. For example FORTRAN compiler
will not compile source code written in COBOL language.
Object program generated by compiler is machine dependent. It means programs
compiled for one type of machine will not run in another type. Therefore every type
of machine must have its personal compiler for a particular language. Machine
independence is achieved by using one higher level language in different machines.
Advantages of High Level Languages
Higher level languages have a major advantage over machine and assembly languages
that higher level languages are easy to learn and use. It is because that they are similar
to the languages used by us in our day to day life.
Characteristics of some high level languages:
FORTRAN
FORTRAN or formula translation, the first high level programming language, was invented by
John Backus for IBM, in 1954, and released commercially, in 1957. It is still used today for
programming scientific and mathematical applications. Fortran began as a digital code
interpreter for the IBM 701 and was originally named Speedcoding. John Backus wanted a
programming language closer to human language. It is one of the most popular languages in
the area of high-performance computing and is the language used for programs that
Figure 1216 High-level to machine conversion with a compiler.
Thomas L. Floyd
Digital Fundamentals, 9e
Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.

benchmark and rank the world's fastest supercomputers.
COBOL
COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) was one of the earliest high-level
programming languages. It was developed in 1959 by a group of computer
professionals called the Conference on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL). Since
1959 it has undergone several modifications and improvements. In an attempt to
overcome the problem of incompatibility between different versions of COBOL, the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) developed a standard form of the
language in 1968. This version was known as American National Standard (ANS)
COBOL. In 1974, ANSI published a revised version of (ANS) COBOL, containing a
number of features that were not in the 1968 version. In 1985, ANSI published still
another revised version that had new features not in the 1974 standard. The language
continues to evolve today. Object-oriented COBOL is a subset of COBOL 97, which
is the fourth edition in the continuing evolution of ANSI/ISO standard COBOL.
COBOL 97 includes conventional improvements as well as object-oriented features.
Like the C++ programming language, object-oriented COBOL compilers are
available even as the language moves toward standardization.
BASIC
Basic stands for Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. The original BASIC
language was Dartmouth Basic, invented by Thomas Kurtz and John Kemeny around 1964.
Basic is a very powerful language as a tool for the novice programmer. Basic allows for a
wide range of applications, and it has many versions. However, as long as the emphasis is on
the techniques of programming and problem solving, the specific syntax is easy to follow.
Basic has many strong points, such as:
Easy to learn for beginners
Adds powerful additional features for the advanced user
Is designed for interactive use rather than batch work
Lends itself to learning by hands-on practical use
and is therefore suitable for both the professional and non-professional
The C Programming Language
C was used exclusively on UNIX and on mini-computers. During the 1980s, C compilers were
written for other platforms, including PCs.
To provide a level of standardization for C language, in 1989, ANSI created a standard
version of C that is called ANSI C.
One main benefit of the C language is that it is much closer to assembly language other than
other types of high-level programming languages.
The programs written in C often run much faster and more efficiently than programs written
in other types of high-level programming language.

C++ Programming Language
C++ is an extension of C that adds object-oriented programming capabilities. C++ is a popular
programming language for writing graphical programs that run on Windows and Macintosh.
The standardized version of C++ is commonly referred to as ANSI C++.
The ANSI C and ANSI C++ standards define how C/C++ code can be written.
The ANSI standards also define run-time libraries, which contains useful functions, variables,
constants, and other programming items that you can add to your programs.
The ANSI C++ run-time library is also called the Standard Template Library or Standard C++
Library.
Java
Java is a programming language originally developed by James Gosling at Sun
Microsystems and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java
platform. The language derives much of its syntax from C and C++ but has a simpler
object model and fewer low-level facilities. Java applications are typically compiled
to bytecode (class file) that can run on any Java Virtual Machine (JVM) regardless of
computer architecture.The original and reference implementation Java compilers,
virtual machines, and class libraries were developed by Sun from 1995. There were
five primary goals in the creation of the Java language:
1. It should be "simple, object oriented, and familiar".
2. It should be "robust and secure".
3. It should be "architecture neutral and portable".
4. It should execute with "high performance".
5. It should be "interpreted, threaded, and dynamic".


3. OPERATING SYSTEM

Q. Write short notes on batch processing. M07
Q. Define batch, online, and real time processing. Give bussiness application in which the
above processing is used. M06
Q. What is operating system? Discuss in detail any two operating system. O06
Q. Differentiate between batch processing and real time processing. O06
Operating Systems software is an integrated set of programs that lies between applications
software and the hardware devices.
Think of the cross section of an onion. The inner core of the onion represents the hardware
devices, and the applications software represents the outside layer. The middle layer is the
operating systems software. The instructions must be passed from the outer layer through
the middle layer before the reaching the inner layer.

The onion example
An operating system controls the resources like CPU, memory, input- output devices.
It provides its users with an interface that is more convenient to use than the bare
machine.
Functions of an operating system:
1. Process management:
This module of an operating system takes care of the creation and deletion of
process scheduling of various system resources to different processes,
requesting them and providing mechanisms for synchronization and
communication among processes.

2. Memory management:
This module takes care of the allocation and deallocation of memory space to
the various programs in need of this resource.
3. File management:
It takes care of file related activities such as organization, storing, retrieval,
having sharing and protection of files.
4. Security
Operating systems provide password protection to keep unauthorized users out
of the system. Some operating systems also maintain activity logs and
accounting of the user's time for billing purposes. They also provide backup
and recovery routines for starting over in the event of a system failure.
5. Command interpretation:
This module takes care of interpreting user commands and directing the
system resources to handle the request
In early computer systems a job was executed in the following manner:-
A programmer will first write program on paper.
It was then punched on cards with its data
The deck of cards containing the programs and data was submitted at the
reception counter of the computer center.
An operator would then take the cards and manually load it into a system
from card reader. The operator was also responsible for loading any other
software or hardware devices required for the execution. The operator also
had to clean the main memory to remove any data remaining from the
previous job.
The operator would then run the job.
The result of execution of the job was then printed on the printer which
was brought to the reception counter later from where the programer
would collect it.
This method of job execution was known as manual loading mechanism.
According to the management of process by operating system the operating
system can be classified as follows:-
A. Batch Processing:-

In manual loading mechanism the jobs had to be manually loaded one after
another by the operator. In this method the job to job transaction was not
automatic. The manual transaction from one job to another cost lot of
computer time to be wasted . since the computer remained idle while the
operator loaded and unloaded jobs and prepared the system for a new job. In
order to reduce this idle time a method of automatic job to job transaction was
derived called batch processing.
Batch processing is execution of a series of programs ("jobs") on a computer
without human interaction.
Batch jobs are set up so they can be run to completion without human
interaction, so all input data is preselected through scripts or command-line
parameters. A program takes a set of data files as input, process the data, and
produces a set of output data files. This operating environment is termed as
"batch processing" because the input data are collected into batches on files

and are processed in batches by the program.
In batch processing the jobwas executed in the following way:-
Programer would prepare their programs and data on decks of
cards and submit them at the reception counter of the computer
center.
The operator would collect all the programs and batch them
together and then load them into the input device all at one time.
The operator would then give the command to start executing the
jobs.
The jobs were then automatically loaded and executed by the
system one by one without anyoperator intervention.
When all the jobs in the submitted batch are processed, the operator
would separate and keep the printed output of each job at the
reception counter for the programers to collect them later.
B. MULTIPROGRAMMING:-
A scenario of jobs in multiprogramming system
It was observed that a job does not need the cpu for the entire duration
of its processing. This is because in addition to doing computation , a
job often needs to perform input/output operation. During the course of
its processing depending upon the cpu utilisation , jobs are broadly
classified into the following types:
1. CPU bound jobs: - CPU Bound jobs are jobs that spend
most of their time using the CPU, although they do
perform I/O operations as well. These jobs mostly
perform numerical calculation with little input/output
operations. Programs used for scientific computation
fall in this category.
2. I/O bound jobs:- I/O Bound jobs are jobs that spend
most of their time doing I/O, although they do use the
CPU as well. These jobs perform very little
computation and most time they perform input/output
operations. Programs used for commercial data
processing fall in this category.
In the early days of computing, CPU time was expensive, and
peripherals were very slow. When the computer ran a program that needed
access to a peripheral, the CPU would have to stop executing program
instructions while the peripheral processed the data. This was deemed very
inefficient.
The first efforts to create multiprogramming systems took place in the 1960s.
Several different programs in batch were loaded in the computer memory, and
the first one began to run. When the first program reached an instruction
waiting for an input output operationl, the context of this program was stored
away, and the second program in memory was given a chance to run. The
process continued until all programs finished running. Since there is only one
processor, there can be no true simultaneous execution of different programs.
Instead, the operating system executes part of one program, then part of
another, and so on. To the user it appears that all programs are executing at the
same time.

A typical scenario of jobs in multiprogramming system is shown in the figure.
Job A is not utilizing the CPU as it is busy writing output data, hence the CPU
is utilized to execute job B which is also present in the main memory. Job C
which is also residing in the main memory is waiting for the CPU to become
free. In case of multiprogramming all the jobs in the main memory will be in
one of the following thee states-
- Running(it is using the CPU)
- Blocked(it is performing I/O operation )
-Ready(It is waiting for the CPU to be assigned to it)
In our example jobs A, B, and C are in blocked, running and ready state
respectively. In multiprogramming the CPU will never remain idle as long as
there is some job to execute
Earlier operating systems, i.e. the ones not supporting multiprogramming had
the computer waiting (sitting idle, doing nothing) while the user was busy in
I/O operations. This wasted a lot of system up time and resources. But
multiprogramming allocates the system resources to various programs running
in the memory, such that there is always something available for the CPU to
execute instead of sitting idle. This causes efficient usage of system resources
and hence is regarded as an inevitable feature of Operating Systems.

C. TIME SHARING:-
Use of a computer's resources in a manner that several users access the system in a
sequence but seem to be working simultaneously is termed as Timesharing.
Timesharing is common in larger (mini, mainframe, or clustered) systems since
1960s and accommodates hundreds or even thousands of users. Users share the
computer's time.
A time sharing system has many users terminals simultaneously connected to the
same computer. Using these terminals multiple users can simultaneously work on
the system. The algorithm used in time sharing system allocates a very short
period of CPU time one by one to each user process beginning from the first user
process to the last one and then again beginning from the first one.
This short period of time during which a user process gets the attention of the
CPU is known as a time slice, time slot, or quantum and is of the order of 10-100
Ready
New job
Job processing
completed
Job must wait for
I/O completion
Job is allocated the
CPU for
execution

milliseconds. When the CPU is allocated to the user process, the user process will
use the CPU until the allotted time slice expires or until the process needs to
perform some I/O operation or if the execution of the process is over during this
time period. In a time sharing system the CPU is taken away from a running
process when the allotted time slice expires. Hence the process state diagram of a
time sharing system is as shown in the figure.
Figure 14.9 pg 246
D. MULTIPROCESSING:-
Multiprocessing is a type of processing in which two or more processors work
together to process more than one program simultaneously. It allows the system to
do more work in a shorter period of time. UNIX is one of the most widely used
multiprocessing systems.
Multiprocessor system is also known as parallel system or tightly-coupled system.
It means that multiple processors are tied together in some manner. Generally, (the
processors are in close communication with each other. They share common data
structures and a common system clock.

figure 14.8 pg245
Advantages of Multiprocessor Systems:
Some advantages of multiprocessor system are as follows:
Reduced Cost: Multiple processors share the same resources. Separate
power supply or mother board for each chip is not required. This reduces the
cost.
Increased Reliability: The reliability of system is also increased. The
failure of one processor does not affect the other processors though it will
slow down the machine. Several mechanisms are required to achieve increased
reliability. If a processor fails, a job running on that processor also fails. The
system must be able to reschedule the failed job or to alert the user that the job
was not successfully completed.
Increased Throughput: An increase in the number of processes
completes the work in less time. It is important to note that doubling the
number of processors does not halve the time to complete a job. It is due to the
overhead in communication between processors and contention for shared
resources etc.
E. REAL TIME OPERATING SYSTEM
Real time operating systems are systems that respond to input
immediately. This category includes operating system design substantially for
the purpose of controlling and monitoring external activities with timing
constraints. They are used for task such as navigation in which the computer
must react to a steady follow of new information without interruption. Most
general purpose operating systems like DOS, Unix are not real time because
they can take a few seconds or even minutes to react.
A real-time operating system (RTOS) is a multitasking operating
system intended for real-time applications. Such applications include
embedded systems (programmable thermostats, household appliance
controllers), industrial robots, spacecraft, industrial control, and scientific
research equipment.

Some examples of real time operating system are:
Basic real time monitor
C Executive
Various operating systems
MS-DOS (Microsoft-Disk Operating System)
introduction
Features of MS-DOS
Command Line Interface
MS-DOS uses a command line interface, forcing the user to input commands at a
prompt. The command set for DOS is limited. It consists mainly of navigation and file
manipulation commands. Most complex operations are handled by the programs
themselves. Since users have to enter commands in sequence, they could create batch
files, which are text files listing a series of commands that the OS would execute in
order. One common example of this is AUTOEXEC.BAT, a batch file that the OS
runs on first boot and contains commands to set up the computing environment.
Single Tasks
Because Microsoft intended MS-DOS to run on early PCs without much in the way of
RAM, MS-DOS features no ability for programs to multitask. When the user runs a
program, that program consumes system resources until it stops, and then another
program may access memory. Certain types of programs called TSRs, for Terminate
and Stay Resident, can park themselves in memory, but these programs are vulnerable
to memory overlap and frequently crashed. The first versions of Windows introduced
true multitasking to PCs.
Filenames
One distinctive characteristic of MS-DOS is its 8+3 file naming system. File names
are limited to eight characters, with a three-character suffix denoting the type of file.
For instance, TXT and DOC denote text files, while COM and EXE indicate
executables and SYS is reserved for system files. Windows has since done away with
the eight-character limit, although file suffixes still indicate to the OS how to handle
each type of file, and many of the original suffixes from the early days of MS-DOS
still exist.
Drive Letters
Another prominent characteristic of MS-DOS is its use of letters to refer to drives.
Typically, A and B designate floppy drives, while C and anything later in the alphabet
refers to hard drives or optical drives. Users have the ability to map any drive letter
they wish, although typically they would assign them in alphabetical order. Today,
Windows still uses drive letters, and still reserves A and B by default, despite the fact
that modern PCs typically do not contain floppy drives.
BASIC DOS COMMANDS :
a) Directory Commands :
DIR : To list all or specific files of any directory on a specified disk.

MD : To make directory or subdirectory on a specified disk/drive.
CD or CHDIR : Change DOS current working directory to specified directory on
specified disk or to check for the current directory on the specified or default drive.
RMDIR or RD : Removes a specified sub-directory only when it is empty. This
command cannot remove root directory (C:\) or current working directory.
TREE : Displays all of the directory paths found on the specified drive.
PATH : Sets a sequential search path for the executables files, if the same are not
available in the current directory.
SUBST : Substitutes a string alias for the pathname and creates a virtual drive.
b) File Management Commands :
COPY : Copies one or more files from source disk/drive to the specified
disk/drive.
XCOPY : Copies files and directories, including lower-level directories if they
exists.
DEL : Removes specified files from specified disk/drive.
REN : Changes the name of a file(Renaming).
ATTRIB : Sets or shows file attributes (read, write, hidden, Archive).
BACKUP : Stores or back up one or more files/directories from source disk/drive
to other destination disk/drive.
RESTORE : Restores files that were backed up using BACKUP command.
EDIT : Provides a full screen editor to create or edit a text file.
FORMAT : Formats a disk/drive for data storage and use.
c) General Commands :
TIME : sets or displays the system time.
DATE : Sets or displays system date.
TYPE : Displays the contents of at the specified file.
PROMPT : Customizes the DOS command prompt.

Advantages:
1. It will run on a much smaller system. (ENTIRE OS can be placed on a SINGLE MODERN
ROM chip!)
2. It gives you more "direct" control of the processes.
3. Because of smaller size will "boot" much faster than ANY windows version.
4. Is easier to write "special purpose" programs for, so long as they don't require
"fancy" graphics.
5. Allows you to make use of the "old, slow" system you hid in the closet when
you bought the "new" one.

Disadvantages:
1. Very few "new" programs available, therefore you need to be able to write
programs in many cases.
2.Not nearly as fancy in the graphics department.
3. Not compatible with current "browsers" and most internet.

Windows Operating System
Introduction Microsoft Windows is a popular operating system software for
computers. Windows is made by the Microsoft company. Almost 90% of desktop and laptop
computers have Windows installed
Windows makes it easier to run programs (applications) than DOS did. It also helps people
keep their files safe and in order.
Some programs are included with Windows. Some examples:
Wordpad - to write simple documents
Photo viewer - to look at pictures
Paint - to make simple drawings
Internet Explorer Web browser - to use the Internet to look at web pages
and download files.
Windows Media Player - to listen to music and watch videos.
Parts of the Windows

Desktop The opening screen of windows 98.
Icons a pictorial representation of a program or file.
Taskbar Is the bar that shows the tasks that are open and also contains the start button, the
lunch buttons, and the system tray.
Launch Buttons start certain window programs immediately
System Tray Contain programs that started the same time window 98 did.
Task buttons Show what programs are running

Window a program or group of icons that is open.
Title bar Displays the name of the window, or the document in the window
Menu bar Show one or two words commands that commands the computer what to do.
Tool bar icons that give shortcuts to different commands contained in the menu bar.
Work area the white area in the middle of the window.

Status bar Gray bar at the bottom that gives hints about what you are doing.

Mouse buttons- Left, right, and center - Left mouse button chooses things; Right mouse
button brings up a short cut menu, Center if present controls the scrolling bar.
Click - chooses things
Drag and drop It moves objects by clicking and holding left mouse button down and
moving mouse
Double click opens things.

Windows Desktop
Windows Desktop is like a working surface of a desk. Desktop is where your applications,
folders and shortcuts are located. Desktop contains the following items.
1. Icon: An icon is a small colourful graphical picture that represents an object like a file,
folder, program or any hardware components of the computer. Every icon has a lable, which
identifies it. The labels can be changed. Windows operating system uses different icons to
represent files, folders and applications. Icons found on the desktop are normally left aligned.
Icons of the Desktop. The icons provided by windows are:
1. My Documents
2. My Computer
3. My Network Places
4. Recycle Bin
5. Internet Explorer

2. Start Button: Start button is found at the lower left corner of the screen. Click once on
the start button to open a menu of choices. Through this button we can open the

programs, installed on your computer and access all the utilities available in the
windows environment.

We can shutdown, restart and/or standby the computer by using the start button.
Start menu displays a menu of choices:
1. Programs
2. Favorites
3. Documents
4. Settings
5. Find
6. Help
7. Run
8. Shutdown

4. Recycle Bin
Recycle bin makes it easy to delete and undelete files and folders. When a file or
folder is deleted from any location, Windows stores it in the recycle bin. If a file is
deleted accidentally, you can move it back from the recycle bin. We can also empty
recycle bin to save disk space.

My Computer
My computer lets you browse the contents of your computer. The common tasks that
we can perform through my computer are:

My Documents
It is a desktop folder that provides a convenient place to store documents, graphics or
other files that you want to access quickly. On the desktop it is represented by a folder
with a sheet of paper in it. When you save a file in a program such as word pad or
paint, the file is by default saved in my documents unless you choose a different
location.

Windows
It is a rectangular area of Screen that displays different information. In windows every
folder or application has a window. Following are the properties of a window:
1. Every window has a title bar which displays the name of the window.
2. A window can be resized, minimized and maximized by pressing the buttons at the
top right corner, of the title bar.
3. A window can be closed by pressing the x button at the right of the title bar.
4. A window can be moved at any location of the screen.


ADVANTAGE OF WINDOWS
1.Microsoft has made several advancements and changes that have made it a much easier
to use Operating System, and although arguably it may not be the easiest Operating
System, it is still Easier than Linux.
2.Because of the large amount of Microsoft Windows users, there is a much
larger selection of available software programs, utilities, and games for Windows.
3.Microsoft Windows includes its own help section, has vast amount of available online
documentation and help, as well as books on each of the versions of Windows.


DISADVANTAGE OF WINDOWS
1.Microsoft Windows can run between $50.00 - $150.00 US dollars per each license
copy.
2.Although Microsoft Windows has made great improvements in reliability over the last
few versions of Windows, it still cannot match the reliability of Linux.
3.Although Windows does have software programs, utilities, and games for free, the
majority of the programs will cost anywhere between $20.00 - $200.00+ US dollars per
copy.
4.Although Microsoft has made great improvements over the years with security on
their Operating System, their Operating System continues to be the most vulnerable to
viruses and other attacks.

UNIX OPERATING SYSTEM:
Unix is an operating system.Unix is a command line-based computer operating system
developed in 1969. Although traditional Unix is still largely utilized, there are a number of
Unix-based operating systems including Linux, Mac OS X and BSD. There are both
advantages and disadvantages to the Unix operating system depending on the individual user
and the intended use of the computerIt is written in high-level language, 'C' making it easy to
port to different configurations.
BASIC FEATURES OF UNIX OPERATING SYSTEM
Several features of UNIX have made it popular. Some of them are:
Portable
UNIX can be instaled on many hardware platforms. Its widespread use can be traced to the
decision to develop it using the C language.
Multiuser
The UNIX design alows multiple users to concurently share hardware and software
Multitasking
UNIX alows a user to run more than one program at a time. In fact more than one
program can be runing in the background while a user is working foreground.
Networking
While UNIX was developed to be an interactive, multiuser, multiasking system,
networking is also incorporated into the heart of the operating system. Aces to another
system uses a standard communications protocol known as Transmision Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
Organized File System

UNIX has a very organized file and directory system that alows users to organize and
maintain files.
Device Independence
UNIX treats input/output devices like ordinary files. The source or destination for file
input and output is easily controled through a UNIX design feature caled redirection.
Utilties
UNIX provides a rich library of utilties that can be use to increase user productivity
UNIX System Architecture
AS do most computer systems, UNIX consists of two separable parts: the Kernel and System
programs. We can view the UNIX operating system as being layered as shown in figure 1.
Application Programs Created by Users
Shells editor and commands
(who, we, grep, comp)
complilers and enter pretens system
libraries
System call interface to the kernel
Signals
terminal
handling
character I/O
system terminal
drivers
File system
swapping
block I/O system
disk & tape
drivers
CPU scheduling,
pages
replacement,
demand paging,
visual memory
Kernel interface to Hardware:
Terminal
controllers
terminals
Device
controllers
disks and
tapes
Memory
Controllers
Physical memory
Figure 1 : Unix System Architerture
Everything below the system call interface and above the physical hardware is the Kernel.
The Kernel provides the file system, CPU Scheduling, memory management and other
operating system functions through system calls.
Programs such as shell (Sh) and editors (vi) shown in the top layer interact with the Kernel by
invoking a well defined set of system calls. The system calls instruct the Kernel to do various
operations for the calling programs and exchange data between the Kernel and the program.

System calls for UNIX can be roughly grouped into three categories: file manipulation,
process control and information manipulation. Another category can be considered for device
manipulation, but, since devices in UNIX are treated as (special) files, the same system calls
support both files and devices.
Unix commands
cat --- for creating and displaying short files
chmod --- change permissions
cd --- change directory
cp --- for copying files
date --- display date
echo --- echo argument
ftp --- connect to a remote machine to download or upload files
grep --- search file
head --- display first part of file
ls --- see what files you have
lpr --- standard print command (see also print )
more --- use to read files
mkdir --- create directory
mv --- for moving and renaming files
ncftp --- especially good for downloading files via anonymous ftp.
print --- custom print command (see also lpr )
pwd --- find out what directory you are in
rm --- remove a file
rmdir --- remove directory
rsh --- remote shell
setenv --- set an environment variable
sort --- sort file
tail --- display last part of file
tar --- create an archive, add or extract files
telnet --- log in to another machine
wc --- count characters, words, lines
Advantages & Disadvantages of the Unix Operating System
Advantage:
Virtual Memory
o The Unix operating system offers an efficient level of virtual memory. What
this means for the user is that you can use a number of programs at the same
time using only a modest level of physical memory. The system can handle
several programs at once without severely pulling on the system's resources.
Toolbox
o This operating system offers a rich collection of small utilities and commands
that are designed to carry out specific tasks well rather than being cluttered up

with a variety of special but insignificant options. Unix acts as a well-stocked
toolbox rather than attempting to do everything at once.
Customization
o Unix has the ability to string different utilities and commands together in an
unlimited number of configurations in order to accomplish a variety of
complicated tasks. This operating system is not limited to any pre-configured
menus or combinations as most ordinary personal computer systems normally
are.
Portability
o Unix is available for use on a variety of different types of machines, making it
one of the most portable operating systems in existence. Unix can be run on
both PC and Macintosh computers and many other computing machines as
well.
Disadvantage:
Interface
o The traditional interface for the Unix operating system is command line based,
and this command line interface may be hostile to the casual user. Unix was
developed for use by programmers and serious computer users rather than
casual users. A graphical user interface (GUI) is also available, but the
traditional Unix interface is command line only.
Special Commands
o Commands required by the command line interface often make use of cryptic
naming schemes, and do not give much information to notify a user of what
they are doing. Many commands in the Unix interface require the use of
special characters. Small, normally insignificant typos can have much greater
effects and unexpected results on Unix machines.
Overwhelming to Novices
o While the richness of utilities offered by Unix is a benefit or advantage to
many, this may be overwhelming to a novice user. The Unix operating system
is not simple by any means, and may be daunting and overwhelming to some
users.

Linux Operating System
features of Linux Operating System:

Following are the key features of the Linux operating system:
Multitasking: several programs running at the same time.
Multiuser: several users on the same machine at the same time (and no two-user
licenses!).
Multiplatform: runs on many different CPUs, not just Intel.
Multiprocessor/multithreading: it has native kernel support for multiple
independent threads of control within a single process memory space.
It has memory protection between processes, so that one program can't bring the
whole system down.

Demand loads executables: Linux only reads from disk those parts of a program that
are actually used.
Shared copy-on-write pages among executables. This means that multiple process can
use the same memory to run in. When one tries to write to that memory, that page
(4KB piece of memory) is copied somewhere else. Copy-on-write has two benefits:
increasing speed and decreasing memory use.
Virtual memory using paging (not swapping whole processes) to disk: to a separate
partition or a file in the file system, or both, with the possibility of adding more
swapping areas during runtime (yes, they're still called swapping areas). A total of 16
of these 128 MB (2GB in recent kernels) swapping areas can be used at the same time,
for a theoretical total of 2 GB of useable swap space. It is simple to increase this if
necessary, by changing a few lines of source code.
A unified memory pool for user programs and disk cache, so that all free memory can
be used for caching, and the cache can be reduced when running large programs.
All source code is available, including the whole kernel and all drivers, the
development tools and all user programs; also, all of it is freely distributable. Plenty of
commercial programs are being provided for Linux without source, but everything that
has been free, including the entire base operating system, is still free.
Multiple virtual consoles: several independent login sessions through the console, you
switch by pressing a hot-key combination (not dependent on video hardware). These
are dynamically allocated; you can use up to 64.
Supports several common file systems, including minix, Xenix, and all the common
system V file systems, and has an advanced file system of its own, which offers file
systems of up to 4 TB, and names up to 255 characters long.
Many networking protocols: the base protocols available in the latest development
kernels include TCP, IPv4, IPv6, AX.25, X.25, IPX, DDP (AppleTalk), Netrom, and
others. Stable network protocols included in the stable kernels currently include TCP,
IPv4, IPX, DDP, and AX.25.
ADVANTAGES AND DI SADVANTAGES OF LI NUX
OPERATI NG SYSTEM
Cost The most obvious advantage of using Linux is the fact that it is free to obtain,
while Microsoft products are available for a hefty and sometimes recurring fee.
Microsoft licenses typically are only allowed to be installed on a single computer,
whereas a Linux distribution can be installed on any number of computers, without
paying a single dime.
Security In line with the costs, the security aspect of Linux is much stronger than
that of Windows. Why should you have to spend extra money for virus protection

software? The Linux operating system has been around since the early nineties and
has managed to stay secure in the realm of widespread viruses, spyware and adware
for all these years. Sure, the argument of the Linux desktop not being as widely used
is a factor as to why there are no viruses. the Linux operating system is open source
and if there were a widespread Linux virus released today, there would be hundreds
of patches released tomorrow, either by ordinary people that use the operating
system or by the distribution maintainers. We wouldnt need to wait for a patch
from a single company like we do with Windows.
Choice (Freedom) The power of choice is a great Linux advantage. With Linux,
you have the power to control just about every aspect of the operating system. Two
major features you have control of are your desktops look and feel by way of
numerous Window Managers, and the kernel. In Windows, your either stuck using
the boring default desktop theme, or risking corruption or failure by installing a
third-party shell.
Software - There are so many software choices when it comes to doing any specific
task. You could search for a text editor on Freshmeat and yield hundreds, if not
thousands of results. Regular users and programmers contribute applications all the
time. Sometimes its a simple modification or feature enhancement of a already
existing piece of software, sometimes its a brand new application. In addition,
software on Linux tends to be packed with more features and greater usability than
software on Windows. Best of all, the vast majority of Linux software is free and
open source. Not only are you getting the software for no charge, but you have the
option to modify the source code and add more features if you understand the
programming language.
Hardware - Linux is perfect for those old computers with barely any processing
power or memory you have sitting in your garage or basement collecting dust.
Install Linux and use it as a firewall, a file server, or a backup server. There are
endless possibilities. Old 386 or 486 computers with barely any RAM
run Linux without any issue. Good luck running Windows on these machines and
actually finding a use for them.
Disadvantages of Linux:
Understanding Becoming familiar with the Linux operating system requires
patience as well as a strong learning curve. You must have the desire to read and
figure things out on your own, rather than having everything done for you.
Compatibility Because of its free nature, Linux is sometimes behind the curve
when it comes to brand new hardware compatibility. Though the kernel contributors
and maintainers work hard at keeping the kernel up to date, Linux does not have as
much of a corporate backing as alternative operating systems. Sometimes you can
find third party applications, sometimes you cant.

Alternative Programs Though Linux developers have done a great job at creating
alternatives to popular Windows applications, there are still some applications that
exist on Windows that have no equivalent Linux application.
Commonly used Linux Commands
Command Usage
pwd Find out directory you are currently in
cd dir1 Change to directory dir1 below the one you are in
cd /home/user/dir2 Change to directory dir2 from anywhere
cd .. Change to the parent directory of the one you are currently in
cd Change to your home directory
mkdir dir1 Create directory dir1 as a subdirectory of the one you are in
mkdir /home/user/top/dir2 Create directory dir2 from anywhere (requires directory
structure above dir2, already exists)
rmdir dir1 Delete directory dir1 below the one you are in. (rmdir only
works if the directory is empty.)
rmdir /home/user/top/dir2 Delete directory dir2 from anywhere
ls list the contents (files, symbolic links and directories) of the
current directory
ls dir1 List contents of subdirectory dir1 of the directory you are in
ls /home/user/top/dir2 List directory dir2 from anywhere
cat file.txt Display the contents of a (text) file on the screen
tail file.txt Display the last 10 lines of a (text) file on the screen
more file.txt Display the contents of a (text) file on the screen, one screen at
a time
less file.txt Display the contents of a (text) file on the screen, allowing to
scroll both upwards and downwards; use less -S file.txt to also
scroll sideways
rm file1 Delete file file1 from the current directory
rm *.txt Delete all the files ending in .txt in the current directory
rm -i *.txt Delete all the files ending in .txt in the current directory after
having asked for confirmation
rm -R dir1 Recursively delete all files in all directories
below dir1 including dir1 itself
mv oldfile newfile Rename (move) oldfile to newfile in the current directory
chmod ug+rx file1 Change permissions on file1 for user and group to readable and
executable (+rx)
chmod go-r file1 Change permissions on file1 for group and other users to
unreadable (-r)

4. NETWORKING


Basic Elements of a Communication System:
A basic telecommunication system consists of three elements:
a sender that takes information and converts it to a signal;
a transmission medium/communication link that carries the signal; and,
a receiver that receives the signal and converts it back into usable information.
Data Transmission Media:
On any network, the various entities must communicate through some form of media. Just as
humans can communicate through telephone wires or sound waves in the air, computers can
communicate through cables, light, and radio waves. Transmission media enable computers
to send and receive messages but do not guarantee that the messages will be understood. The
common transmission media are discussed below:
Twisted pair cable:
The oldest and still common transmission medium is twisted pair. It is also
called Unshielded Twisted Pair cable, UTP cable is a popular type of cable
used in computer networking that consists of two shielded wires twisted
around each other. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is
generally the best option for school networks .

Fig.1. Unshielded twisted pair
The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-
speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is
twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate
interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. The tighter the
twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per
foot. A major disadvantage of this type of cable is that it may react to radio or
electrical interference. Although twisted pair is often associated with home
use, a higher grade of twisted pair is often used for horizontal wiring in LAN
installations because it is less expensive than coaxial cable.
Advantages
It is a thin and flexible .
The same cabling can be used for voice and data communication, saving
labor and material and thus saving expenses.

UTP costs less per meter/foot than any other type of LAN cable.
Disadvantages
It has limitation in terms of speed with which data can be carried.
It is less secure than coax or fiber optic in terms of someone being able to
easily tap it.
Coaxial cable:
Coaxial cables were the first cable types used in LANs. As shown in figure
coaxial cable gets its name because two conductors share a common axis; the
cable is most frequently referred to as a coax. The components of a coaxial
cable are as follows:

A center conductor, although usually solid copper wire, sometimes is made of
stranded wire.
An outer conductor forms a tube surrounding the center conductor. This
conductor can consist of braided wires, metallic foil, or both. The outer
conductor, frequently called the shield, serves as a ground and also protects
the inner conductor from EMI.
An insulation layer keeps the outer conductor spaced evenly from the inner
conductor.
A plastic encasement (jacket) protects the cable from damage.


The structure of coaxial cable consists of four main components.
Advantages
The advantages of coax include the following:
Coax has a sufficient frequency range to support multiple channels, which allows for
much greater throughput.
Compared to twisted-pair, coax provides greater bandwidth systemwide, and it also
offers greater bandwidth for each channel. Because it has greater bandwidth per

channel, it supports a mixed range of services. Voice, data, and even video and
multimedia can benefit from the enhanced capacity.
coax has lower error rates and therefore slightly better performance than twisted-
pair. The error rate is generally 10
9
(i.e., 1 in 1 billion) bps.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of coax are as follows:
The bus topology in which coax is deployed is susceptible to congestion, noise, and
security risks.
The return path has some noise problems, and the end equipment requires added
intelligence to take care of error control.
Installation costs in the local environment are high.
Coax may be damaged by lightning strikes. People who live in an area with a lot of
lightning strikes must be wary because if that lightning is conducted by a coax, it
could very well fry the equipment at the end of it.
Optic fiber:
The Structure of an Optical Fiber
Typical optical fibers are composed of core, cladding and buffer coating. The
core is the inner part of the fiber, which guides light. The cladding surrounds the core
completely. The refractive index of the core is higher than that of the cladding, so
light in the core that strikes the boundary with the cladding at an angle shallower than
critical angle will be reflected back into the core by total internal reflection.
Transparent glass or plastic fibers which allow light to be guided from one end to the
other with minimal loss.


Fiber optic cable functions as a "light guide," guiding the light introduced at one end of the
cable through to the other end. The light source can either be a light-emitting diode (LED)) or
a laser.
The light source is pulsed on and off, and a light-sensitive receiver on the other
end of the cable converts the pulses back into the digital ones and zeros of the original
signal.
While fiber optic cable itself has become cheaper over time - a equivalent length
of copper cable cost less per foot but not in capacity. Fiber optic cable connectors and
the equipment needed to install them are still more expensive than their copper
counterparts.
Advantages of Fiber Optics
Greatly increased bandwidth and capacity
Lower signal attenuation (loss)
Immunity to Electrical Noise
Signal Security because difficult to tap.
Freedom from short circuit and sparks
Reduced size and weight cables
Resistant to temperature variations
Disadvantages
Physical vibration will show up as signal noise!
Limited physical arc of cable. Bend it too much and it will break!
Difficult to splice
Microwave System
Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The transmit station

must be in visible contact with the receive station. This sets a limit on the distance between
stations depending on the local geography. Typically the line of sight due to the Earth's
curvature is only 50 km to the horizon! Repeater stations must be placed so the data signal
can hop, skip and jump across the country. Microwaves operate at high operating
frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz. This allows them to carry large quantities of data due to their
large bandwidth. Microwave transmission uses very-high frequency signals (3,000 MHz to 30
GHz) to transmit signals between stations. The high frequency permits large amounts of data
to be transmitted.
Unlike broadcast radio signals, which are omnidirectional, microwave
transmission is focused and unidirectional. That means that microwave stations use line-of-
sight transmission and signals travel in straight line. Terrestrial microwave transmissions are
sent between two microwave stations on the earth (earth station). It is the most common
form of long-distance communication.
Advantages:
a. They require no right of way acquisition between towers.
b. They can carry high quantities of information due to their high operating
frequencies.
c. Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies only a small area.
d. High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antennae.
Disadvantages:
a. Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog.
b. Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal.
c. Diffracted (split) around solid objects.
d. Refracted by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be projected away from receiver.
Communication Satellites:
Satellites are transponders (units that receive on one frequency and retransmit on
another) that are set in geostationary orbits directly over the equator. These geostationary
orbits are 36,000 km from the Earth's surface. At this point, the gravitational pull of the
Earth and the centrifugal force of Earth's rotation are balanced and cancel each other out.
Centrifugal force is the rotational force placed on the satellite that wants to fling it out into

space.
The uplink is the transmitter of data to the satellite. The downlink is the
receiver of data. Uplinks and downlinks are also called Earth stations because they are located on
the Earth. The footprint is the "shadow" that the satellite can transmit to, the shadow being the area
that can receive the satellite's transmitted signal.
Advantages
When first deployed, satellite communications had the advantage of being able to provide high
capacity communications over long ranges.
A single geostationary satellite can provide communications coverage of 42.4% of the Earth's
surface.
There are few sources of interference that cannot be factored into the link budget of the
propagation path of the satellite. This results in a very high availability.
It guarantees a desired level of quality of service with an allowance of more than 30 dB for
terrestrial systems in the same frequency range.
Disadvantagest
All aspects of satellite systems are expensive by comparison to terrestrial systems.
The time taken for a transmission to travel the large distances required for satellite
communications is significant.
Ground stations are generally large and expensive and are easy to locate and destroy. Satellite
communications are also very simple to intercept and very volatile to jamming of signal or
telemetry links
The inability to service the platform once operational and the harsh environment that the platform
will operate in makes satellite communications prone to catastrophic system failure

Due to the cost and size of a given platform, ownership and associated business issues can cause
problems with operations of the platform
Q. Explain in detail the different types of networks. M07
Q. Write short notes on LAN, MAN. M08, M06
Types of Network
LAN - Local Area Network
A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance. A networked office
building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes one building will contain
a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby
buildings. In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and
managed by a single person or organization. They also tend to use certain connectivity technologies.
A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files, printers, games or other applications. A
LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and to the Internet or other WAN. Most local area
networks are built with relatively inexpensive hardware such as Ethernet cables, network adapters,
and hubs. Specialized operating system software may be used to configure a local area network.
The most common type of local area network is an Ethernet LAN. The smallest home
LAN can have exactly two computers; a large LAN can accommodate many thousands of computers.
Many LANs are divided into logical groups called subnets.
WAN - Wide Area Network
As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance. The Internet is the largest
WAN, spanning the Earth.
A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called a
router connects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the router maintains both a LAN address and a
WAN address. Computers connected to a wide-area network are often connected through public
networks, such as the telephone system. They can also be connected through leased lines or
satellites. WANs generally utilize different and much more expensive networking equipment than do
LANs.
A WAN differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are
not owned by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and
management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity over
the longer distances.
MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
A network spanning a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as
a city. A MAN is typically owned an operated by a single entity such as a government body or large
corporation. They typically use wireless infrastructure or Optical fiber connections to link their sites.
Metropolitan area networks can span up to 50km, devices used are modem and wire/cable.

Q. Explain various network topologies. O06
Q. Mention the merits and demerits of each network topology. M08

Topology
In Computer Networking topology refers to the layout or design of the
connected devices. Topology can be considered as a virtual shape or structure of a network.
This shape actually does not correspond to the actual physical design of the devices on the
computer network. The computers on the home network can be arranged in a circle shape but
it does not necessarily mean that it presents a ring topology.
Topologies are the important part of the network design theory. A better network
can be built if you have the knowledge of these topologies and if you know the difference
between each topology.
Computer network topologies can be categorized in the following categories:
bus
star
ring
mesh
Tree.
Hybrid networks are the complex networks, which can be built of two or more above
mentioned topologies.
Bus Topology

In a Bus or linear network topology, all workstations and servers are connected to a single
cable called the bus. At the ends of the network circuit, a device called terminator is installed
to complete the network circuit. Bus topology uses a common backbone to connect all the
network devices in a network in a linear shape. A single cable functions as the shared
communication medium for all the devices attached with this cable with an interface
connector. The device, which wants to communicate send the broadcast message to all the
devices attached with the shared cable but only the intended recipient actually accepts and
process that message.
If the Backbone cable fails then network becomes useless and no communication fails among
all the computers. Unlike in the Star topology in which if one computer is detached from a
network then there is not effect on the other computers in a network.
Advantages

Cheap, reliable, efficient use of cable.
Simplest and easiest method.
Disadvantages
Isolating problems is hard. One error can halt the system.
Fault finding is difficult in bus topology.
Ring Topology
In a Ring topology, all workstations and servers are chained together in much the same
way as they are in a bus network. The exception is that the cables at the ends of the network are
connected together rather than terminated.
In ring Network, every computer or devices have two adjacent neighbors for
communication. In a ring network, all the communication messages travel in the same
directory whether clockwise or anti clockwise. Any damage of the cable of any cable or
device can result in the breakdown of the whole network. Ring topology now has become
almost obsolete.

.
Each computer in the ring examines all messages, passes them on if they are not the
destination node. If no computer accepts a message, it returns to the sender, which removes it
from the ring.

Advantages
All clients have equal access to data. This gives even performance under heavy
demand conditions.
More reliable as it is not dependent on any central computer as in case of star
network
If one line between any two computer breaks or one of the computer fails
alternative route for communication is possible.
Disadvantages

Difficult to add another host to the ring.
There is a delay in communication if the number of computers is more.
Star Topology
In the computer networking world the most commonly used topology in LAN is the star
topology. Star topologies can be implemented in home, offices or even in a building. All the
computers in the star topologies are connected to central devices like hub, switch or router.
The functionality of all these devices is different. The hub controls and directs messages.
Computers in a network are usually connected with the hub, switch or router with the
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
As compared to the bus topology, a star network requires more devices & cables
to complete a network. The failure of each node or cable in a star network, wont take down
the entire network as compared to the Bus topology. However if the central connecting
devices such as hub, switch or router fails due to any reason, then ultimately all the network
can come down or collapse.
Advantages
Reduces risk of failure.
Expanding the network is simple.
Managing the network is centralized.
Disadvantages
If the hub breaks down, the system fails.
Tree Topology
A tree topology is a LAN architecture that is identical to
the bus topology, except that branches with multiple nodes are possible in this
case.
Tree topologies are comprised of the multiple star topologies on a bus. Tree
topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. Only the hub devices can
connect directly with the tree bus and each Hub functions as a root of a tree of the network
devices. This bus/star/hybrid combination supports future expandability of the computer
networks, much better than a bus or star.

Advantages of a Tree Topology
1. Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
2. Supported by several hardware and software vendors.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
Overall the type of cabling used limits length of each segment.
1. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
2. More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
Mesh Topology
Mesh topologies are networks in which many paths
connect computers. Mesh topology works on the concept of routes. In Mesh
topology, message sent to the destination can take any possible shortest,
easiest route to reach its destination. In the previous topologies star and bus,
messages are usually broadcasted to every computer, especially in bus
topology. Similarly in the Ring topology message can travel in only one

direction i.e. clockwise or anticlockwise. Internet employs the Mesh topology
and the message finds its route for its destination. Router works in finding the
routes for the messages and in reaching them to their destinations. The
topology in which every device connects to every other device is called a full
Mesh topology unlike in the partial mesh in which every device is indirectly
connected to the other devices.
Advantages
This redundancy allows the system to continue if some connections fail.
Disadvantages
Multiple connections are expensive.
Hybrid Topology
With the hybrid topology, two or more topologies are combined to
form a complete network. For example, a hybrid topology could be the
combination of a star and bus topology. These are also the most common in
use.
In a star-bus topology, several star topology networks are linked to a
bus connection. In this topology, if a computer fails, it will not affect the rest
of the network. However, if the central component, or hub, that attaches all
computers in a star, fails, then you have big problems since no computer will
be able to communicate.

Advantages
Network expansion is simple. If one client fails, the entire network does not fail.
Disadvantages
If one hub fails, all connections to that hub fail, although other
hubs continue to function.